The Battle of Cajamarca

The Battle of Cajamarca, fought on November 16, 1532, was a pivotal event during the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire. In this clash, Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro and his small force of around 170 men ambushed and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa, despite being vastly outnumbered. This surprise attack, marked by a brutal use of firearms and cavalry, led to the decimation of thousands of unarmed Inca warriors and significantly weakened the Inca Empire, paving the way for Spanish dominance in South America.

Cajamarca—Inca vs. Conquistadors

Introduction

In early 1527, two small Spanish ships crept tentatively down the unexplored western coast of South America. Just after crossing the equator, they encountered a large, well-made, oceangoing balsa raft. The crew of the raft was made up of about 20 Inca merchants. This moment marked the first encounter between the Spanish and members of the vast Inca Empire. The Spaniards were impressed by the sophistication of the vessel’s construction and even more excited by the silver and gold adornments worn by the crew. Such treasures were exactly what the Spaniards were seeking, and they immediately seized the raft and its contents. Within a few years, the mighty Inca Empire would fall to European invaders.

The Inca

• (1) The Inca occupied a narrow strip of territory, several hundred miles wide but almost 3,000 miles long, stretching down the western coast of South America and encompassing parts of what are today Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.
• (2) These regions had been home to a succession of indigenous civilizations and cultures that had been building urban sites at least as far as back as 1400 B.C. These civilizations developed a high level of craftsmanship in textiles, metalwork, and pottery.
  (a) They domesticated llamas and alpacas as sources of food, wool, and transportation.
  (b) They erected monumental structures using precisely cut stone blocks.
  (c) They developed religious beliefs and practices, such as sun worship, ancestor worship, mummification, and a sacred calendar.
  (d) Some established large empires created by conquest and held together by an administrative structure and road-building.
• (3) The Inca were relatives latecomers to this environment, but all these elements would be incorporated into their culture. After founding the city of Cuzco, the Inca gradually increased in power until they controlled the entire valley and surrounding regions.
• (4) Cuzco remained the capital city, but the empire was divided into four administrative districts of varying sizes. Cuzco was considered the center of the world, and four great highways leading to each of the regions converged at its central plaza.
• (5) Rest stops and storehouses were erected at intervals along the roads so that the army could march swiftly, and a network of relay runners was established to carry messages. Altogether, about 25,000 miles of roads linked an empire with an estimated population of around 10 million.
• (6) All Inca males were required to undergo basic military training, making it easy to raise armies of tens of thousands in times of crisis, and the system of storehouses greatly facilitated supplying these armies in the field. The soldiers were organized into groups of 10 and various multiples up to the largest unit size of 10,000, all foot soldiers.
• (7) Popular missile weapons were slings and bolas—stones joined by a cord—that could be flung to entangle an enemy’s limbs. The main hand-to-hand weapon was a club or mace consisting of a wooden shaft with a stone or metal head molded with pointy knobs. Armor consisted of quilted or padded garments, light shields, and helmets.
• (8) In 1527, the first omen of disaster struck when a severe epidemic broke out, killing a significant percentage of the populace. Most likely, this was smallpox. Among the victims was the emperor, as well as his chosen heir. Between the terror caused by the epidemic and the succession crisis caused by the deaths of the old emperor and his heir, the Inca Empire was thrown into confusion.
• (9) In the civil war between the two remaining sons, Huascar and Atahualpa, Atahualpa prevailed. Apparently an able leader, Atahualpa, had been able to call on the allegiance of the army and march in triumph to the capital.
• (10) It was precisely at this dramatic moment that Francisco Pizarro and his army of 167 Spaniards appeared, marching inland from the coast, near where Atahualpa was encamped.

The Spaniards

• (1) Pizarro was the illegitimate son of a Spanish military officer. Inspired by the tales of Cortes’s success, he went to the New World and made several attempts to mount an expedition into unexplored southern areas. He entered into a partnership with several other men to outfit a pair of ships, and it was these that had encountered the raft of the Inca merchants in 1527.
• (2) With the goods seized in this encounter as evidence, Pizarro returned to Spain, seeking royal backing for a major expedition. He got minimal financial support but was granted an official proclamation authorizing him to conquer Peru and naming him governor.
• (3) Pizarro sailed from Panama on December 27, 1530. He proceeded slowly along the coast, eventually reaching Inca territory but encountering only ruins as a result of the devastation caused by the civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar.
• (4) Finally, on November 8, 1532, Pizarro left the coast to head inland. He took with him 62 horsemen, 106 foot soldiers, and a few small cannons. This small army ascended up into the mountains, passing several points where their progress might easily have been halted by a defensive force.

The Campaign

• (1) By extraordinary good fortune, Pizarro was making his advance just as the civil war was reaching its climax, and Atahualpa was encamped with an army of between 40,000 and 80,000 men at Cajamarca, near where Pizarro was marching into the highlands.
• (2) Atahualpa sent an envoy to the Spanish bearing gifts and invited Pizarro to meet him at Cajamarca. He seems to have received accurate reports about their horses and weapons, but clearly, he viewed their numbers as too few to pose any threat.
• (3) When the Spanish arrived at Cajmarca, they found it filled with the vast encampment of Atahualpa’s army. The Spanish occupied low stone buildings lining the triangular main plaza. A Spanish embassy visited Atahualpa, with inconclusive results.
• (4) Pizarro and his men began to fear for their lives, realizing that they were deep in Inca territory and isolated from any possible aid. They decided that their best chance of survival was to attempt to emulate Cortes’s move and kidnap Atahualpa, using him as a hostage to ensure their safety.
• (5) Accordingly, they invited Atahualpa to visit and prepared to seize him if the opportunity arose. The Inca leader promised to come. As the hours passed, the Spanish grew more agitated and sent a message promising that no harm or insult would befall him. As the sun began to set, Atahualpa, carrying on a litter and accompanied by an estimated 7,000 of his chiefs and retainers, entered the village.
• (6) Pizarro had his men, ready and fully armed, concealed in the buildings. He had also occupied a small fort and stationed his cannons and more men there. The Inca appear to have honored an agreement to come unarmed, although some may have carried slings and small knives.
• (7) Eyewitnesses from the Spanish and Inca sides give somewhat differing accounts of what happened next, but what is certain is that Pizarro gave the signal to attack. His men, including 60 mounted on horses, burst out of the buildings and charged into the ranks of the unsuspecting Inca. The cannons fired with terrible effect into the crowded throng of natives, and the steel-encased Spanish began to cut them down. Pizarro himself led the attack on Atahualpa’s litter.
• (8) Oddly, the Spanish allowed Atahualpa to send and receive messengers and to act as the emperor while he remained captive. Atahualpa remained calm and dignified, clearly believing that he would soon escape. Noting the fascination that gold seemed to hold for the Spaniards, he offered to fill one of the nearby rooms with gold objects up to a height of about seven feet in exchange for his freedom. The Spanish eagerly accepted the terms, and Atahualpa gave orders for the gold to be collected and sent to Cajamarca.
• (9) He badly misjudged the Spanish, however. Months passed while the ransom was collected, during which time the Spanish acquired reinforcements and took into custody the most powerful Inca generals, who might have organized opposition to them.
• (10) Once the incredible ransom was assembled, the Spanish melted it all down, destroying an irreplaceable artistic heritage. Pizarro did not release Atahualpa as promised and, in July 1533, put him on trial on trumped-up charges and executed him.
• (11) The Spanish replaced him with a succession of puppet emperors, while the rebel Inca elevated their own emperor. The last Inca emperor died in 1572, by which time the Spanish consolidation of power over the Inca Empire was complete.

Outcomes

• (1) The conquest and subsequent colonization of the Americas by European powers in the 16th century was certainly a turning point in history, with wide-reaching effects that are still felt around the world today. But the question remains: Why were the Spanish successful in the face of overwhelming odds?
• (2) One obvious factor is naval technology. Developing the sort of oceangoing ships that could carry enough supplies, sail against contrary winds, and endure storms, along with the navigational instruments to steer an accurate course, was crucial.
• (3) Another is the superior quality of Spanish steel, both in armor for protection and in swords for attack. This would definitely give a serious advantage, but there are many instances in history of groups armed with less advanced weaponry being able to defeat high-tech armies, even those that possessed gunpowder.
• (4) Attention also often focuses on the Spanish horses, which were intimidating, and Spanish cavalry charges were initially devastating, but the Inca quickly learned to dig pits and take measures that helped limit the effectiveness of horsemen.
• (5) Like most complex historical questions, the answer is still being debated, and the true explanation is probably some combination of factors. Nevertheless, the astonishing conquests of the Americas and the collapse of the major indigenous empires constitute two significant military points in history.

Conclusion

The Battle of Cajamarca was a defining moment in the history of the Americas, symbolizing the clash of two vastly different civilizations. Despite being vastly outnumbered, the Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro, leveraged superior military technology, tactical deception, and the element of surprise to achieve a decisive victory over the Inca Empire. The capture and subsequent execution of Atahualpa, the Inca emperor, marked the beginning of the end for one of the largest and most powerful indigenous empires in the Americas.

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