The Battle of Koniggratz

The Battle of Koniggratz, also known as the Battle of Sadowa, was a decisive conflict fought on July 3, 1866, during the Austro-Prussian War. It marked a pivotal moment in European history, as the Prussian army, led by Helmuth von Moltke, achieved a significant victory over the Austrian forces under Ludwig von Benedek. This battle led to the unification of Germany under Prussian dominance and the decline of Austrian influence in central Europe. The outcome solidified Prussia’s role as the leading German power, paving the way for the creation of the German Empire in 1871.

Koniggratz: Bismarck Molds Germany

Introduction

In the mid-19th century, Otto von Bismarck of Prussia sought to unite under Prussian leadership the dozens of disparate German-speaking principalities and kingdoms into one Germany, which would then become the dominant force in European politics. Bismarck believed that his goals of German unification and the ascendance of Prussia as a great European power would have to be accomplished through military force. Although in retrospect it is tempting to see the unification of Germany as inevitable, a key moment early in the process catapulted both Bismarck and Prussia into prominence: the Battle of Koniggratz, fought against Austria in 1866. Today, this battle is viewed as a crushing Prussian victory and the foundation block of German unification, but it easily could have gone the other way.

The Opponents

• (1) Over the course of 30 years, first as minister of Prussia and then as chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck skillfully pursued the goals of German unification and Prussian ascendancy. Although a brilliant politician, he needed a soldier to carry out his aggressive policies, and in Helmuth von Moltke, he found a partner as skilled at warfare as he was at politics.
• (2) Moltke was an organizational genius and a brilliant military theorist who oversaw the development of the Prussian army into the most formidable force on the continent. He rose quickly through the ranks, becoming chief of the Prussian General Staff. It was from this position that he was able to put into effect his theories on warfare.
• (3) As a strategist, Moltke managed to combine a gift for meticulous planning and ferocious organization with a pragmatic appreciation for the value of flexibility in real warfare.
  (a) He favored movement and flank attacks over fixed fortifications, even when on the defensive.
  (b) He was one of the first to realize that the growth in firepower on the battlefield was rendering frontal assaults increasingly costly and outdated.
  (c) He was ahead of his time in appreciating the value of a well-trained general staff and was a proponent of new technologies, making extensive use of railroads to mobilize his troops during the war with Austria and of the telegraph to coordinate the movements of widely dispersed armies.
• (4) Moltke was not able to fully modernize Prussia’s artillery, but he was successful in organizing and equipping its infantry along state-of-the-art principles, particularly the basic gun carried by the men. Whereas their Austrian opponents were still using muzzle-loading muskets, Prussian infantry were issued modern bolt-action, breech-loading rifles.
  (a) Although the breech-loader offered a number of advantages, initially, there had been difficulty in making a breech strong enough to stand up to the force of repeatedly firing the weapon.
  (b) By the mid-19th century, some arms manufacturers were solving that problem. One version used a sharp, needlelike spike to strike the cartridge and fire the weapon. Because of its firing mechanism, it was often popularly called a needle gun. This gun was selected by the Prussian army for mass production and issuance to its troops.
• (5) During this period, the two most powerful states on the continent were France and the Austrian Empire. A united Germany would challenge their hegemony; thus, any attempt to create a powerful new nation would likely involve direct conflict with them. Austria, in particular, exercised varying degrees of control over several of the key Germanic states and regions that Bismarck wished to bring within the Prussian sphere of influence.
• (6) The Austrian Empire was a large, wealthy, culturally fragmented realm that included parts of northern Italy, Hungary, Croatia, the Illyrian coast, Bohemia, and Transylvania. The Austrian army, especially its fine Magyar cavalry, enjoyed a fine reputation, having fought with success in a number of minor wars.
• (7) Commanding the Austrian forces at Königgrätz was Ludwig von Benedek, the son of a Hungarian doctor. Like Moltke, he determined upon a military career early in life and enrolled as a cadet in a military academy at the age of 14. He was both a highly popular and a successful officer, fighting in a number of conflicts, mostly in Italy, and gaining a reputation for bravery. At the Battle of Solferino in 1859, when the other elements of the army fled, his command alone stood its ground and nearly snatched victory from disaster, further enhancing his reputation.
• (8) When war with Prussia became imminent, Benedek was the popular choice for overall command of Austria’s armies, but he was reluctant to accept, recognizing that grand strategic thinking was not his strength. Among other factors, he had spent his entire career fighting in Italy and, thus, was unfamiliar with even the basic topography of Central Europe. Nevertheless, he accepted the post and filled his staff with similarly ill-suited aides. The contrast between the slapdash, rather disinterested General Army Staff of Austria and Moltke’s highly efficient, machine-like Prussian one could not have been more pronounced.

The Campaign and Battle

• (1) Bismarck and the Prussians knew that to supplant the Austrian Empire in its dominant position over the German confederation, they would have to provoke a war. The opportunity came when Prussia came into conflict with Austria over Schleswig-Holstein.
• (2) On June 15, 1866, the Prussians demanded that the states of Hannover, Hesse-Kassel, and Saxony abandon their alliances with Austria and disarm. When they refused, the war officially began. Now, Moltke’s careful planning paid dividends, as Prussian armies rapidly mobilized and swept forward, and the three states were conquered with astonishing swiftness.
• (3) The subjugation of these states was the first step in an overall plan for invading the Austrian Empire. Moltke had devised a four-pronged attack, in which the separate armies would conquer initial objectives, mostly the minor German states, then combine to take on the main Austrian army.
• (4) Critics of Moltke’s plan feared that dispersing the elements of the Prussian army so widely would make them vulnerable to attack, but the speed of their advance kept the Austrians off balance, and the invasion accomplished all of its initial objectives.
• (5) Meanwhile, Benedek situated the main Austrian army in an arc with its back to the Elbe River northeast of Königgrätz in southern Bohemia. This Austrian army was as large as all the Prussian ones combined, numbering around 250,000 men.
• (6) By dawn on the morning of July 3, the Prussian Elbe and First Armies were closing in on the Austrian army from the east and were ready to launch an attack. The Second Army, however, was still marching down from the north. Without it, the Elbe and First Armies were outnumbered almost two to one. Moltke had to decide whether or not to launch the attack with the available forces and hope that the Second Army would arrive to strike the Austrians’ exposed northern flank. He decided to attack.
• (7) On the Prussian’ right flank, the Elbe army managed to cross a key bridge but encountered determined resistance. In the center and on the left, the Prussian First Army waded across a river and pressed its attack, initially meeting with success and driving back the opposing forces. The needle gun proved its superiority and helped the Prussians to defeat larger contingents of Austrians.
• (8) The Prussians advanced through a series of small villages before entering a zone commanded by the massed Austrian artillery. The Austrian rifled cannons were of excellent quality, and more than 250 guns unleashed a firestorm that pounded the Prussian ranks, inflicting heavy casualties.
• (9) On the Prussian left, many men sought refuge from the deadly cannonade in the Svir forest, which became the scene of an intense fight. The Austrians launched a counterattack that halted the advance and threatened to break the Prussian lines. At least 13 Austrian charges were flung against them, and they were on the verge of buckling. The desperate Prussian commander appealed for reinforcements, but Moltke refused, calculating that until the Second Army arrived, all reserves had to be kept intact to meet the potential threat of a general Austrian advance.
• (10) One Austrian commander pushed his men forward on the far left of the Prussian line and was in position to outflank them. All he needed was for Benedek to support this action with a push against the Prussian center. This was a crisis point in the battle and the moment of supreme danger for the Prussians. Benedek, however, chose to remain on the defensive, refusing all requests to advance and, instead, letting his cannons chew up the Prussian forces.
• (11) Moltke, aware of the danger, knew that all he could do was watch for the Second Army. At last, it appeared and began to drive into the Austrian’s right flank. At around the same time, the Elbe army finally broke its stalemate and enveloped the left flank of the Austrians. Caught in a classic double envelopment, the Austrian army began to crumble.
• (12) Although some of the Prussian generals wanted to pursue and completely destroy the Austrian army, Bismarck astutely realized that, in the long run, it would be more useful to reconcile with Austria rather than to have her as a bitter enemy; thus, he persuaded Moltke to call off the pursuit.

Outcomes

• (1) After the battle, the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef immediately sued for peace. Austria was finished as a great power and, within six months, was reorganized as the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• (2) In 1870, with Moltke in command, Prussia inflicted a swift and humiliating defeat on the French. As part of the peace treaty, France was forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine and pay a huge indemnity—actions that created great resentment and were factors leading to the outbreak of the First World War.
• (3) The only European nation more powerful than a united Germany was Great Britain, and the two countries engaged in an arms race that was yet another element leading to World War I. It is not difficult to see how the political and military history of the first half of the 20th century can be traced directly to Prussia’s triumph at Koniggratz, but it should not be forgotten how easily the battle might have had a different outcome.

Conclusion

The Battle of Koniggratz was a defining moment in European history, marking the culmination of the Austro-Prussian rivalry for dominance in the German Confederation. The Prussian victory, achieved through superior military strategy, technology, and leadership, decisively ended Austria’s influence in German affairs. This battle not only solidified Prussia’s dominance but also set the stage for the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership, altering the political landscape of Europe. Austria’s defeat at Koniggratz diminished its power, leading to a realignment of European alliances and setting the foundation for future conflicts, including the Franco-Prussian War.

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