The Mauryan Empire: Administration

The Mauryan administration was a sophisticated and influential system of governance in ancient India during the Mauryan Empire, which flourished from approximately 322 BCE to 185 BCE This meta-description offers a brief insight into the structure and functioning of the Mauryan administration, highlighting its central authority, use of provinces, taxation, and role in shaping the stability and prosperity of the empire.

Mauryan Empire Administration: Definition, Achievements and Facts

Introduction

The Mauryan Empire was the largest state in the entire ancient world and first started a new form of government, i.e., centralized government. Within its framework, it united a number of people and tribes. The Mauryan centralized monarchy became a paternal despotism under King Ashoka. This paternal attitude is expressed in the remark “All men are my children,” which almost becomes Asoka’s motto in defining his attitude towards his subjects.

King

The Mauryan king claimed no divine origin, yet he was considered the representative of the gods. The kings were described as Devanampriya, Beloved of the Gods. The king was the source and center of all authority, the head of administration, law, and justice, as well as the supreme judge. He chose his ministers, appointed high officials, and controlled their activities. There was a well-planned system of supervision and inspection. The king led an arduous life and was always focused on promoting the welfare of his subjects. According to Kautilya, the ideal ruler is a native of the territory, who follows the teachings of the Shastras, who is free from disease, who is brave, strong, self-confident, truthful, and of noble birth.

Central Govt

The Mauryan government was completely bureaucratic and ruled by several officials of various ranks. Kautilya said, “Administration cannot be the work of one man, just as one wheel cannot steer a vehicle”. The normal administrative machinery prescribed for the government of the state consisted of the following elements:

• (i) a king;
• (ii) viceroys and governors acting as the king’s representatives;
• (iii) ministers;
• (iv) heads of departments;
• (v) a subordinate civil service; and
• (vi) officers in charge of rural administration.

Council of Ministers

• (i) The king was assisted by a council of ministers called the Mantriparishad; the ministers themselves were known as mantras. There was no hard-and-fast rule regarding their number. Their number varied according to need. Their salary was 48,000 panas per year. The Arthasashtra lists the qualities that a minister should have, emphasizing the qualities of birth, integrity, and intelligence. He further suggests that these properties should be ascertained from different sources. The Mantriparishad consisted of Purohit (High Priest), Senapati (Commander-in-Chief), Yuvaraj (Heir Apparent), and several other ministers. The council, or Mantriparishad, had its secretary in charge of its office, whom Kautilya called Mantrifarasad Adhyaksha.
• (ii) Asoka in Rock Edict III, and I mention his Parishad for dealing with urgent matters by the Council. The Arthashastra lists the chief minister, or Mahamantri, and also distinguishes between ministers and the Council of Ministers.

Secretaries

The central administration was managed by a series of senior officers who were like modern secretaries in ministries and performed judicial and administrative functions. The Amatyas of Arthasashtra were identified as secretaries. These Amatyas can be compared to the “Seventh Caste” of Megasthenes, which consisted of the advisers and appraisers of the king.

Bureaucracy

The machinery of central government dealt with by Kautilja in Adhyakshaprachara (Book II) is worthy of a modern Manual of Administration. It envisages a vast, numerous, and all-pervading bureaucracy that keeps itself in touch with all aspects of the social, economic, and administrative needs of the country. A major achievement of the Mauryan administration was the rapid and successful establishment of a hierarchy of officials and their organization into a coordinated bureaucracy. The civil service consisted of different grades and pay scales associated with each grade. Kautilya gives a description of these stages, which show very well the vastness and complexity of the administrative apparatus.

Superintendents or Adhyakshas

• (i) The central administration was conducted by a highly qualified secretariat divided into several departments, each headed by an Adhyaksha or superintendent. Kautilya, in the second book of his Arthasashtra, gives an account of the action of nearly thirty-two Adhyakshas, viz., those of Accountant-General (Akahapal Adhyaksha), Mines (Akara), Gold (Suvarna), Stores (Kosthagara), Trade (Panya), Forest Products (kunya), Armory (Ayudhagara), Weights and Measures (Tulamanapantava), Spinning and Weaving (Sutra), Agriculture (Sita), Excise (Sura), Shipping (Nau), Passports (Mudra), Ports (Pattan), Mint (Lakshana), General Trade and Trade Routes (Samstha), etc. There were superintendents of both the civil and military departments.
• (ii) It is hardly necessary to repeat that most of these departments and officers are mentioned by Greek writers and that their descriptions bear very close and striking resemblances to those of Kautilya.

Eminent officials of the central government

Kautilya mentioned the functions of various officers of the central government. Some of the important officers and their functions are “described as under:

(i) Sannidhata

Sannidhata was the head of the royal treasury and the state’s revenue in cash and kind. All the royal shops were under his supervision and control.

(ii) Samaharta

Samaharta was like the chancellor of the state and was responsible for collecting revenue from different parts of the country.

(iii) Akshapataladhyaksha

Akshapataladhyaksha was the chief accountant in charge of the two offices of currency and accounts. The fiscal year was Asadha (July), and 354 working days were counted in each year.

(iv) Sitadhyaksha

The Sitadhyaksha was the director of agriculture and was in charge of the cultivation of Crown lands or government agricultural farms.

(v) Akaradhyaksha

Akaradhyaksha was the Chief Inspector of Mining and had scientific knowledge of mines, metallurgy, gems, and precious stones. The state had a monopoly on the operation of the mines and the trade in their products.

(vi) Lavanadhyaksha

Lavanadhyaksha was the salt overseer. Salt production was a state monopoly administered by a salt overseer. It was administered by a system of licenses for payment of a fixed fee or performance share.

(vii) Navadhyaksha

Navadhyaksha was the superintendent of ports. It controlled traffic and transit on waterways, rivers, oceans, coastal routes, etc., and also guarded rivers and seacoasts.

(viii) Panyadhyaksha

Panyadhyaksha was a controller of the trade who was in charge of controlling the supply, prices, purchase, and sale of commodities. He also controlled the supply of food grains and other goods by issuing licenses to traders.

(ix) Sulkadhyaksha

Sulkadhyaksha was a customs or toll collector. Kautilya described detailed customs regulations, including a list of prohibited and duty-free items. Goods were classified according to the customs or tolls that applied to them.

(x) Suradhyaksha

Suradhyaksha was the chief tax administrator who controlled the production and sale of spirits and intoxicants. Only sealed liquor was to be sold at specified places, days, and times.

(xi) Pautavadhyaksha

Pautavadhyaksha was the superintendent of weights and measures. He regularly inspected the scales, weights, and measures used by private individuals and printed them.

Intelligence and espionage

A notable feature of the Mauryan administration was the uninhibited manner in which the organization of the secret service and the use of secret agents for various purposes were advocated. To maintain complete vigilance over the entire administration, including the conduct of the officers, a well-connected spy system was developed. A large number of detectives (gudda purushas), secret agents, double agents, intelligence agents, spies, counterspies, etc. were deployed throughout the kingdom. Kautilya has given a detailed account of various aspects of espionage. He divides them into santhan (immovable) and wandering. Each has several subsections. Only the most efficient, smart, and extremely honest men and women were accepted into this department. Cipher writing, code words, secret language, etc. were used, and the services of carrier pigeons were enlisted. The king was always informed about the workings of the bureaucratic machinery. The spies were the “ears and eyes of the king”. The normal lives of the people, although monitored and reported, were not affected. Kautilya has suggested a number of agents, such as underwater disciples, recluses, householders, merchants, ascetics, fellow students, fiery, poisonous, and women of many kinds, including Vishkanyas or poisonous girls. Snake charmers, acrobats, and many other professionals were employed on a part-time or full-time basis. The spies had to perform their duties very skillfully, carefully, and secretly. There were spies against spies, and in important matters, more than one agent was asked to gather information, which was then tallied and referenced. According to Strabo, “They were overseers to look over what was happening throughout the country and in the cities and to report privately to the king.” Asoka, in one of his edicts, ordered that he be constantly informed of the happenings of the state. Ambassadors (dutas) appointed in foreign countries were “open spies”.

Military organization

• (i) The Mauryan rulers had a large, disciplined, and well-organized army. The king was the supreme commander and personally supervised the army in peace and war. His entire existence rested on the army itself. Pliny records that the Mauryan army consisted of 6,00,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 war elephants, and 1,000 chariots, besides a transport corps and a fleet.
• (ii) It has been wrongly claimed that the Mauryan army was inspired by the Greek model. It was purely indigenous. Kautilya devoted several chapters to the organization of the army. The king himself led an army in war, as Chandragupta Maurya did in his battle against Seleucus Nikator or Asoka against the ruler of Kalinga.
• (iii) Soldiers received uniforms, arms, and armor from the state and received their regular pay. War chariots were drawn by strong oxen; each chariot carried two soldiers and a sarathi (driver). Three archers and a mohat (driver) sat on each elephant. The soldiers were equipped with bows, arrows, and quivers; swords and daggers; spears and other projectiles; clubs; mallets; or other smashing tools. Defensive armor such as helmets, bulletproof vests, shields, leg armor, etc. were used only by notable knights or those who could afford them. Elephants and horses were also protected.
• (iv) Elaborate rules are prescribed in the Arthashastra for the training and education of soldiers, their pay, duties, and responsibilities. Similarly, specific rules were laid down for the training, diet, handling, etc. of war animals. Doctors, nurses, and other non-combatants were attached to each contingent.
• (v) The overall command of the defense forces was a Senapati (commander-in-chief), directly appointed by the king, who supervised and commanded the entire army. The king always consulted him on all matters concerning the army. He had under him chief inspectors of horses, elephants, chariots, and infantry, and a separate officer commanding the armory.
• (vi) There was a War Council consisting of thirty members, divided into six sub-councils of five members each, which formulated policy. The first formulated rules and regulations for the infantry, the second for the cavalry, the third for the elephants, the fourth for the charioteers, the fifth for the navy, and the sixth for the commissioners.
• (vii) The Navy, transport, and commissariat were Mauryan innovations. Ships, ferries, and barges were built and used for both trade and defense. Ports and harbors were built for civil and military purposes and were protected from pirates.
• (viii) There were two kinds of soldiers: hereditary and mercenaries. The former were on the regular payroll, while the latter were recruited during the war. The Mauryas could rule such a vast empire thanks to a well-managed army.
• (ix) Asoka declared war and declared a policy of peace and non-violence. This peaceful and submissive attitude of the monarch proved to be a dead weight for the fighting spirit of the soldiers. It corroded the military machine, compromised its effectiveness, and degraded its morale.

Public works

The king was supposed to treat his subjects as his own sons and daughters and therefore to undertake various programs of public welfare. The “Department of Road” built, repaired, and maintained state highways and other important roads. Trees were planted on the sides of the road, and wells were dug. Rules were laid down for the correct width of various roads. Cattle tracks and footpaths were thus 1 to 2 meters wide; paths for wagons and other wheeled traffic were 10 meters wide; and main roads were 20 meters wide. Important roads were paved with stones or palm trunks; villages only had dirt roads. Milestones and signboards were set up at frequent intervals to mark routes, turning points, and distances. Resting places like Dharamshala and inns were built at important places where food for the men and fodder for the animals were provided at a reasonable price. Businessmen, tourists, government officials, and members of the defense forces – all use these facilities. Drinking water facilities (wells, canals, lakes, reservoirs, etc.) and hospitals were available for humans and animals. Schools and colleges, temples and other religious buildings, bridges and dams, markets and trading centers, rest houses, almshouses, etc. were some of the many public buildings constructed by the state. Certain other charitable activities that enjoyed the patronage of the King were discussed under the heading “Expenditure”.

Irrigation

There was a full-fledged department to look after irrigation activities across the state. The land for irrigation was measured, and water for irrigation was supplied by a network of canals. The construction and maintenance of wells, canals, reservoirs, lakes, and other water sources were the responsibility of the state. The most famous ‘Sudarshan Lake’ in Girnar, Gujarat, was built by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya. This lake was provided with supplementary canals by Tushaspa, the governor in the days of Asoka.

Census

Both Megasthenes and Kautilya state that there was a regular census department, and every birth and death was duly recorded in a register. This is probably the first mention of a census in the world. Such detailed information about people must have made it easier to collect taxes and maintain law and order. It was easy to find out the number of farmers, herdsmen, traders, etc., or persons of different castes, religions, or creeds, along with their occupation, income, and so on. The census officer in towns was called Nagaraka. Records of the immigration and emigration of foreign travelers, businessmen, or students were kept, and all assistance was provided to them. A list of persons of questionable character and antecedents was maintained. Such records had to serve as the most reliable indicator of people’s living standards and development.

Public health

Hospitals for men and animals were established at all important places. In these hospitals were placed doctors, surgeons equipped with surgical instruments, nurses, midwives, people skilled in detecting poison, etc. Treatment was generally free. Foreign travelers were very well cared for, treated tenderly when they fell ill, and respectfully buried when they died. In doubtful cases, an autopsy was performed to determine the cause of death. Some oils were applied to keep the dead body from decomposing for a certain period of time. Counterfeiting was a serious offense and was punishable by death. The streets were kept clean, and there were separate places for littering or throwing animal carcasses.

Revenues

• (i) “A full treasury is the guarantee of the prosperity of the state,” says Kautilya, who held the idea that the most important duty of a ruler is to keep his treasury always full for all works. Taxes were collected in cash and in-kind and were collected by local officials. The main source of revenue was the land tax, which represented one-sixth to one-fourth of the produce and was collected by a revenue official, the agronomist, who measured the land, levied the tax, and collected it. The tax was slightly higher on irrigated land but reduced if it was less productive. The second major source of revenue was the toll tax, which was levied on all items (except grain, livestock, and a few other items) that were brought in for sale. This tax was approximately 10 percent and corresponded to the modern excise tax. A city council tax was levied on local manufacturers. There were also taxes on liquor stores, gambling houses and professionals such as dancers Fines imposed by the courts, tolls on ferries and bridges, lost items, treasures, tributes, and gifts to the king were other sources of revenue for the state. Those who could not pay in cash or in kind were to contribute their share in the form of work. Mechanics, artisans, shudras, and others who survived manual labor had to work one day a month for free. The register of births and deaths shows that some poll tax was also levied. Revenue was also provided by public ceremonies, temples, etc. Strabo mentions that artisans (apart from the “royal artisans”), shepherds, and householders all paid taxes. The Arthasashtra describes the revenue system at great length. The treasury received revenue from mines, forests, pastures, trade, fortresses, etc. The king’s own estates, or royal lands, yielded revenue called sitas. Honors were received on the birth of a prince or on other important occasions.
• (ii) During the Mauryan period, the system of taxation was carefully worked out. Two types of taxes, Bali and Bhaga, are mentioned in Asoka’s edicts. The Rummindei Edict states that the village of Lumbini, where the Gautam Buddha was born, was exempted from Bali and was to pay only one-eighth of the bhaga. Bhaga was levied on agricultural produce and cattle at the rate of one-sixth (shada-bhaga) and was called the king’s share (Raja-bhaga). Bali was a religious tribute. According to Kautilya, the land tax could be increased from one-sixth to one-fourth in case of financial difficulties.
• (iii) Brahmins, women, children, armorers, blind, deaf, and other handicapped people, and royal men were exempted from paying taxes, according to Arthasashtra. No tax was levied in areas where new trade routes, new irrigation projects, or the construction of forts were undertaken. Taxes were collected fully and regularly, and tax evaders were punished.

Expenses

The money thus obtained was largely spent on the upkeep and maintenance of the king, his palace, royals, and other paraphernalia. Large expenses were incurred on the salaries of army personnel and government officials and on allowances and donations given to artisans and the needy. Acts of public welfare such as the construction of roads, hospitals (for humans and animals), rest houses, temples, educational institutions, canals, wells, etc. were given priority.

Feudatory states

Several conquered states were left more or less autonomous on a feudatory basis. The term sangha used by Kautilya for Saurashtra, Kamboja, and some clans in the Punjab corresponds to these non-monarchical self-governing states. Alongside monarchies, there were republican formations called sanghas and ganas. Some distinguishing features of these political organizations were: the absence of autocratic laws; the election of elders and heads; and the existence of a democratic or oligarchic form of government.

Crime and the maintenance of law and order

• (i) According to Kautilya, suppression of crimes and maintenance of law and order were the main duties of a king. He called these anti-social elements Kantakas, or thorns in the political body of the empire. Weeding out these thorns, or Kantakasodhana, i.e., suppressing criminals and other anti-social elements, was the basic function of the state. The Arthasastra devotes the entire fourth book to this subject.
• (ii) The general state of law and order then prevailing in the country as a whole was very good. Megasthenes noted that there was a rarity of litigation among the Indians. They are not judicial. Witnesses and seals are unnecessary when a man makes a deposit. Their houses are unguarded.” However, a general sense of law and order was consistent with and perhaps maintained by a strict penal code.
• (iii) Pradesikas were chief police officers whose duty was to investigate crimes committed in the region under their jurisdiction. All crimes were properly investigated, and great emphasis was placed on the thoroughness of the investigation in the case of serious crimes.

Justice

• (i) The king was the head of justice, the source of law, and all matters of serious consequence were decided by him. In towns and villages, there were special courts presided over by Pradesikas, Mahamatras, and Rajukas. There were two kinds of courts: the dharmasthala, which dealt with civil matters, and the KantShodhana, which decided cases of a criminal nature. At least one court and one police headquarters were established in all important cities and headquarters. Minor cases in the villages were dealt with by the village elders in their panchayats. In civil cases, the Hindu Code was applied as envisaged in the Shastras. It relied on the evidence of respectable people. Punishment was very severe, even for small offenses such as evading government taxes, giving false evidence, causing injury to artisans, common theft, etc. In such cases, the body was mutilated. There were eighteen types of torture, including seven whippings. The penal code was very harsh and strictly enforced. The basic idea behind these punishments was to set an example for others and deter them from doing wrong. There were different kinds of prisons for different criminals, and detailed rules were prescribed for jailers and prisoners.
• (ii) Megasthenes is all praise “for Mauryan law and order. He notes that “there was little crime; murder and theft were almost unknown, people rarely locked their doors, and the security of life and property was guaranteed by the state”.

Land administration

The empire was divided into several provinces, probably five. The northern province, called Uttarapatha, had Taxila as its capital; the western province, known as Avantipatha, had its capital at Ujjain; Prachyapatha, with its capital Toshali (Kalinga), formed the eastern province; and Dakshinapatha, with its capital Suvarnagiri, was the southernmost province. The central province of Magadha, with its capital, Pataliputra, was also the seat of the entire kingdom. The most important provinces (such as Taxila and Ujjain) were directly under the command of the Kumaras (princes). According to the Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman, Saurashtra (or Kathiawar) was ruled by Pushyagupta, a Vaishya, in the time of Chandragupta Maurya and the Yavana King Tusha in the time of Asoka.

District Administration

• (i) Provinces were divided into districts for administration, and a group of officials worked in each district. The group consisted of three main officials: Pradesika, Rajuka, and Yukta. They were helped by others. The status of Rajuka was subordinate to that of Pradesika. Among the pradesik’s duties was to conduct a tour every five years to review the entire administration of the areas under his control. Rajuka belonged to the administration department responsible for surveying and assessing land. The yukta mentioned in Rock Edict III appears to have been a subordinate official. The duties of the yukta largely included secretarial work and accounting.
• (ii) There was an intermediate level of administration between the district level and the village level. A unit here was a group of five or ten villages. The two important officials involved in the administration of this unit were the Gopa and the Sthanika. Gopa worked in an accounting unit. The tax was collected by a Sthanika who worked directly under the Pradesika.

Municipality administration

The village (grama) was the smallest administrative unit and enjoyed a large degree of autonomy. The head of the village was called Gramika, who was assisted by gravidas, or “village elders”. Gramika was not a paid servant; she was elected by the people. Above the Gramika was the gopa, who was the head of the ten villages, and a Sthanika, who ruled a Janapada, or district, comprising a hundred villages. Most village disputes were settled by the Gramika in an open panchayat.

City administration

• (i) Several cities are mentioned in Asoka’s edicts, such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjaini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, Samapa, Isila, Kausambi, etc., and the Arthashastra devotes a whole chapter (II. 36) to “Rules of city supervision.” Megasthenes described the administrative arrangement of Pataliputra in detail, and it is assumed that a broadly similar municipal administration would be applicable to other cities as well.
• (ii) There was local self-government with some autonomy. The important affairs of the city of Pataliputra were managed by a body consisting of thirty commissioners (autonomic or “city council”), who formed themselves into six councils of five members each. The first board provided raw materials and fixed wages, and the second board was for visitors, especially foreign tourists who came to Pataliputra for business. provided them with food, accommodation, and transport and provided all possible assistance. If a foreigner died, his dead body was properly disposed of, and his belongings were handed over to his heirs. The third is carefully recorded in the register. The fourth council watched over manufactured goods and the sale of commodities. It also ensured that the items were not tampered with. The Fifth Council regulated trade, issuing licenses to merchants and controlling their weights and measures. The Sixth Council collected tithes, which were a tenth of all goods sold in the city.
• (iii) Members of the city council were not elected but appointed; nevertheless, these cities enjoyed some autonomy. Taxila, for example, was a game and issued its own coins. The city council appointed officials to look after public welfare, such as the maintenance and repair of roads, markets, hospitals, educational institutions, ports, temples, sewerage, water supply, etc. The officer in charge of the city was the Nagaraka (city prefect). It is doubtful whether any of the modern Greek cities were so well governed.

Conclusion

The Mauryans are credited with being the pioneers who developed elaborate rules for agriculture, animal husbandry, commerce, trade, education, the military, and so on. They could rule a vast empire, the largest in the world today, in peace and tranquility for over a century. It was a highly organized administration under a powerful bureaucracy at the center with sufficient security for local self-government. The government not only collected the revenue but was also involved in production and business activities. Its primary goal was the welfare of the subjects. The Mauryan system of administration endured without major changes even after their empire collapsed.

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