Mauryan Empire

Take a journey through the ancient Mauryan Empire with this meta description. The Mauryan dynasty, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century BC, marked a significant chapter in Indian history

Explore the expansion of the empire under Ashoka, whose conversion to Buddhism had a profound impact on the region. Delve into administrative innovations such as the Arthashastra and the role of the Mauryan Empire in shaping the socio-political landscape of ancient India. Discover the legacy of the Mauryan Empire, which laid the foundations of centralized governance and left an indelible mark on the cultural and political history of the Indian subcontinent.

The Mauryan Empire

Introduction

The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 322 BC. The Moorish Empire was a geographically vast historical power belonging to the Iron Age. The three famous rulers from the Mauryan dynasty who brought the glory of the Mauryan Empire to its peak were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka. Political unity was achieved for the first time in Indian history during the reign of the Mauryas. With the conquest of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the empire was centralized. The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra (present-day Patna). The republic and oligarchy form of government ended and monarchy reached perfection under the Mauryas. The empire is known for its exceptional creativity in literature, art, architecture, and inscriptions. The lion capital of Ashoka, which is the national symbol of India, belongs to this era. The Mauryan Empire ended in 180 BCE and the last ruler of the dynasty was Brihadratha.

Sources of the Mauryan Empire

The history of their rule is given fairly reliably on the basis of evidence obtained from various sources. There are three types of sources available about the Mauryan Empire.

(A) Literary Source

Literary sources of the Mauryan history are as follows:

(1) Arthashastra of Kautilya/Chanakya/Vishnugupta

It is a detailed work on statecraft. Kautilya’s work consists of 15 volumes (Adhikarnas). The first five deal with internal administration (tantra), the next eight with international relations (Avapa), and the last two with various topics.

(2) Indica of Megasthenes

This book was based on his travels and experiences in India. The book has not survived, but fragments are preserved in later Greek and Latin works, the earliest and most important of which are those of Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian, and Pliny.

(3) Others

Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta, Rajtrangini of Kalhana, Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Kathasaritsagar of Somadeva, The Puranas (Vishnu Purana), Buddhist Scripture or Buddhist Literature: Srilankan Chronicles- Dipavamsa and Mahavamsha, Divyavadana, Mahavamsha, Divyavadana, Mahaya Asho Jain Literature: Kalpasutra of Bhadrabah, Parishishta Parvan of Hemchandra, Sangam Literature: Annanur of Mamulanar, Parnar of Kapilar, Foreign Accounts: Contemporary writings of writers like Nearchus, Onesicritus, Aristobulus.

(B) Archaeological Sources

The archaeological sources of the Mauryan Empire as follows:

(1) Inscriptions of Chandragupta Maurya

Sohgaur Copper Plate (Gorakhpur-Uttar Pradesh) and Mahasthan Copper Plate (Bagaur-Bangladesh) mention a granary built during Chandragupta’s reign, which also depicts a drought that occurred during his reign. reign.

(2) Junagarh Rudradaman Inscription

The Junagarh Rudradaman Inscription is the only inscription that mentions the name of both Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.

(3) Edicts and Inscriptions of Ashoka

The most authentic Mauryan records, however, remain the first decipherable inscription issued by Ashoka, found at 45 highway sites in the Indian subcontinent and Afghanistan in 181 versions, composed in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. in the greater part of the Mauryan Empire, although in its north-western part, they appear in Armashtina and Kharosht.

Achievements of Chandragupta Maurya (322 BCE-298 BCE)

Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, ascended the throne of the Nandas in 321 BCE at the age of twenty-five. Historical texts say that Brahmana Kautilya was his mentor and guide. The origins and early life of Chandragupta Maurya remain obscure. According to Brahmanical tradition, he was born of Mura, a shudra woman in the court of Nandas. But Buddhist tradition speaks of the existence of his Kshatriya clan called Mauryas living in the Gorakhpur region adjacent to the Nepalese terai.

(1) Early Life

According to Justin, Chandragupta Maurya was of the royal bloodline. An anecdote follows that Chandragupta was once found playing the game of Rajkilam in his early childhood, this was the incident when he was noticed by Chanakya. He bought Chandragupta for 1000 Karshapana. Chanakya took him to Taxila along with him and raised him with all the skills needed to become a ruler. This led Chandragupta to become one of the greatest emperors in Indian history.

(2) Political Achievements of Chandragupta Maurya

Before becoming a ruler, he destroyed the power of foreign invaders (Greeks) and the Nanda dynasty.

(3) Victory over Nandas

After the victory over the northwest frontier territory, Chandragupta and Chanakya moved towards the Magadha empire. Dhana Nanda was then the ruler of the Magadh empire, who once humiliated Chanakya, as a result of which he later lost his empire. Apart from the Puranas, Milindpanha, Mudrarakshasa, Mahavamsha, and Parishishta Parvan give information about the defeat of the Nandas. Chandragupta took advantage of the growing unpopularity of the Nandas in the last years of their reign. He overthrew the Nandis and established the rule of the Mauryan Empire.

(4) Victory over the Greeks

Greek accounts add that Chandragupta moved into northwest India and subdued the Greek garrisons left behind by Alexander. Soon, however, Seleucus Nicator gained control of most of the Asian provinces of the Macedonian Empire, and in 305 BC he appears to have met Chandragupta in battle. They signed a contract and entered into a marriage alliance. Chandragupta Maurya probably gifted 500 elephants to a Greek general and acquired territory across the Indus. Seleucus’ ambassador Megasthenes lived for many years at the Mauryan court in Patliputra.

(5) Victory over Western India

According to the Girnar inscription (150 AD) of Rudradaman, Chandragupta Maurya established his direct control over the western region up to Saurashtra. Pushyagupta Vaishya was the governor of the area who was instrumental in building the ‘Sudarshan Lake’. The Ashokan inscription found from Sopar also proves the Mauryan Empire’s control over the area.

(6) Victory over South India

Chandragupta Maurya’s victory over South India is mentioned in Ashoka inscriptions, Jain texts, and Sangam literature. He gained control over the North Karnataka region. Jain texts mention his visit to Shravana Belgol (Karnataka) and Chandragiri mountain. The Sangam texts ‘Mamulnar’ and ‘Ahnanur’ also give detailed information about his control over the southern territories.

(7) Religion

According to Jain sources, Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and abdicated in favor of his son. Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jain saint, and a few other monks, he is said to have gone to Shravanabelagola near Mysore, where he deliberately starved himself to death in the sanctioned Jain manner.

(8) Achievements

Chandragupta Maurya was a great warrior, empire builder, and skilled administrator. He became the first great historical emperor of India. Many historians consider him the first hero of the Indian War of Independence, the liberator of India, and also the first ruler of an integrated India. He is also credited with maintaining the first international marriage alliance as part of his diplomatic policy with a daughter of Seleucus named Helena. Therefore, he is considered to be the founder of the first empire in the history of India called the Mauryan Empire.

Bindusara

Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara. The Greeks called him Amitragata, Amitrochates, and Allitrochates, which means slayer of enemies. Bindusara extended the Mauryan Empire far to the south. Sixteen states were brought under the empire, conquering the Indian peninsula. Apart from the southern states, the only kingdom not under Bindusara’s control was Kalinga. His reign was important for continued association with the Greeks. Kautilya continued as Prime Minister during his tenure.

Ashoka (273 BC – 232 BC)

The history of Ashoka is reconstructed on the basis of his inscriptions, which are classified into Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, and Minor Pillar Edicts, Cave Inscriptions. In 275 T. Fanthelar discovered the Ashoka inscription, but it was James Princep who first studied his inscriptions in 1837.

(1) Major Rock Edicts

There are fourteen of them and they are located in eight places. They are Girnar (Gujarat), Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar), Dhauli (Udisha), Junagarh (Udisha), Kalsi (Uttarakhand), Mansehara (Pakistan), Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh), Sopara (Maharashtra).

(2) Minor rock edicts

Rupnath inscription (Madhya Pradesh), Sasaram (Bihar), Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh), Maska, Brahmagiri, Nettur, Jatin Rameshwaram, Palkinath, Govimath, Sannati (Karnataka), Bhabru (Rajasthan), Yhabru (Rajasthan ), Rajula Mandagiri (Andhra Pradesh)

(3) Major Pillar Edicts

There are six of them and seven inscriptions are written on them: Delhi-Topra It is the most popular pillar edict. All seven inscriptions are written on it. Firoz Shah Tughlaq called it Minar-i-Zaheen. Delhi-Meerut, Prayag, Lauria-Araraj (Champaran, Bihar), Lauria-Nandangarh (Champaran, Bihar), Rampurva (Champaran, Bihar).

(4) Sub-Pillar Edicts

Sanchi, Sarnath, Kaushambi – this pillar bears the name of Ashoka’s wife Karuvaki, hence it is called Queen’s Pillar, Rummendai – which gives us information about the taxation system of the Mauryan Empire. Bhag and Bali had two kinds of taxes. Ashoka came here after 20 years of his coronation, Nigliva.

(5) Deciphered from the Ashoka Inscription

Almost a hundred years ago, Ashoka was only a shadowy Mauryan king mentioned in the Puranas. In 1837, James Princep deciphered an inscription in Brahmi referring to a king named Devanam Piyadassi (beloved of the gods). According to Buddhist sources, Ashoka usurped the throne after killing all the rival claimants (99 brothers) and started his rule as a tyrant, but this appears to be untrue as Ashoka mentions his family and brothers in his 5th Major Edict. Buddhist literature documents Ashoka as a cruel king who had a change of heart after the Battle of Kalinga (261 BC). After the war, he embraced Buddhism. He became a benevolent king and led his administration to create a just and generous environment for his subjects.

(6) Early Life of Asoka

He was the son of Bindusara and Subhadranga. Right from his childhood, Ashoka showed great promise in the field of administration. Impressed by his skill and knowledge, Bindusara appointed him the governor of Ujjain/Avanti. Different sources produce different titles of him, some of them – Ahokvardhan (Vishnu Purana), Buddhashakya (Mask Inscription), Magadh Adhiraj (Bhabru Inscription), Maharajkumar (Pandaria Inscription), King Piyadassi (Barabar Cave Inscription), Devnampiyadassi (Rumendai, Inscription Nigliva and Girnar).

(7) Kalinga War (261 BC)

After Ashoka became the ruler, he fought a single battle which was the battle of Kalinga. According to Romila Thapar, Ashoka decided to attack Kalinga to gain control over Kalinga’s thriving trade. This war is mentioned in the 13th Major Rock Edict. Ashoka fought this battle in the 8th year of his reign in 261 BC. Nandaraj was the contemporary ruler of Kalinga (mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription). In this battle, almost one million people lost their lives and almost one million and fifty thousand people were captured. All this bloodshed had a profound effect on Ashoka, eventually changing his personality from a warrior to a saint, as a result of which he renounced the politics of Digvijaya and adopted the politics of Dhamma Vijaya. This was the turning point in the spread of Magadha imperialism which started Bimbisara with the victory of Anga and ended with the victory of Kalinga. Kalinga later became a part of the Mauryan Empire and was divided into two parts i.e. Upper Kalinga (Capital-Tosali), and South Kalinga (Capital-Samapa) for administrative convenience.

(8) Ashoka’s Dhamma

Initially, Ashoka followed the Brahmin religion. Ashoka and Bindusara are said to have fed 60,000 Brahmins daily (Mahavamsa). However, after the Kalinga war, he converted to Buddhism. According to a Sri Lankan chronicle, it was Nigrodha who taught Buddhism to Ashoka. According to Divyavadana and Huen-Tsang Samudra (Balpandit), a former merchant from Shravasti helped Ashoka in his conversion to Buddhism and was taught Buddhism by Upgupta. After he embraced Buddhism, he remained a simple admirer for 2.5 years. He then joined the Buddhist Sangha and became a Bhikshu Gatik, those who have lived in viharas for some time are known as Bhikshu Gatik. However, he never became a Buddhist monk, rather he always remained a worshiper. Ashoka gained world fame because of his Dhamma. The Sanskrit word Dharma is called Dhamma in Prakrit. The basic subject of all Ashoka’s inscriptions is his policy of Dhamma. The definition of Dhamma was created by Ashoka in his 2nd and 7th pillar edict. To influence his subjects to follow it, Ashoka mentioned several good points of Dhamma in his inscriptions like: (a) No killing of people. (b) No Destruction of Properties. (c) Serve and respect parents and adults. (d) Respect mentors and teachers. (e) Good behavior towards slaves and servants. (f) Spend less. (g) Keep less.

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka started talking about Dhammaghosha instead of Bherighosha. In the 13th Major Rock Edict, Ashoka considers Dhammavijaya as the greatest victory. Romila Thapar is of the opinion that Ashoka adopted this Dhamma policy to maintain religious unity in his vast empire, but it proved to be a failure in the long run as the situation and competition for power gradually increased. Several historians compare Ashoka’s Dhamma to the southern victory of Samudragupta, and the Sindh victory of Harshavardhana. Ashoka was the first ruler in world history to practice this policy of Dhamma imperialism, i.e. victory without violence.

(9) Steps taken by Ashoka to spread his Dhamma

To spread his Dhamma Ashoka’s steps as follows:

(a) Beginning of Dhamma-yatra

Ashoka started the Dhamma-yatra at the place of Vihara-yatra. He visited Bodhgaya in the 10th year of his reign ((259 BC) and Lumbini in the 20th year of his reign (249 BC). -yatra.

(b) Appointment of royal officials for the propagation of Dhamma

For the propagation of Dhamma, Ashoka appointed a new category of ministers called “Dhammamahamatra”. In his 5th Major Rock Edict, Ashoka mentions the appointment of royal officials in the 13th year of his reign (256 BC). Apart from Dhammamahamatras, other officials like Yukta, Rajukka, and Pradeshika ete were given the responsibility of propagating Dhamma principles.

(c) Dharma organization of savannas and dharmapadeshas

In order to propagate the principles of dhamma, various officials visited different parts of the empires and the world and influenced people to accept them. The Mahavamsha lists the names of the propagators of the Dhamma who went to numerous places in and outside the country after the three Buddhist councils to spread the principles of the Dhamma. They are Majjhantika-Kashmir and Gandhar. Mahadeva-Mahishmandala. Rakshita-Banvasi. Majjhima-Himalaya region. Sona and Uttara-Suvarnabhumi. Maha Rakshita-Greek lands. Dharmarakshita-Aparantaka (Sindh, Kathiawar). Maha Dharmarakshita- Maharashtra. Mahendra and Sanghamitra-Sri Lanka. The list of names of these Dharma Pracharakas can also be found in Deepansha and Samantpasadika. Stupa number 2 of the Sanchi stupa also bears the names of 10 Pracharakas.

(10) Achievements

According to H. C. Raichaudhary, Ashoka was as powerful as Chandragupta Maurya, as versatile as Samudragupta, and as patient as Akbar. He was famous among his subjects for his charitable works. He was the first to teach the world the principle of “live and let live” and political violence to be against religion. He initially became a follower of Buddhism and spent a huge amount of money to promote it, as a result of which Buddhism soon became a widely followed religion. Therefore, although he renounced the politics of war and imperialism, he still managed to consolidate his vast empire which he inherited, and thus Ashoka is always remembered among the great rulers of Indian history.

Mauryan Society

(1) Varna System

The Varna system was completely developed during the time of Mauryas. There were four types of Varna i.e. Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, and their jobs were decided according to their Varna. Brahmins were the highest among all four Varnas, Kahtriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras respectively. Apart from these four Varnas Kautilya in his Arthashastra spoke of Varna Sankara as Nishad, Magadh, Sut, Veg, Chandals etc. Kautilya considered them as Shudras. Megasthenes describes the social condition of Mauryan India in detail. According to him, the ancient Mauryan society consisted of seven divisions such as philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates, and councilors. According to him, the first in this system were the philosophers and the last were the councilors, because there were fewer councilors according to the population. Megasthenes spoke of two types of philosophers: the first was Broken, i.e. domestic philosophers, and the second was Saramen, the sanyasi philosopher. At the time of any crisis or natural disaster, they use it to predict and inform people about the upcoming disaster. According to Megasthenes, no one could marry a girl or boy from another caste and no one could accept a profession from another caste, but philosophers were an exception. According to Diodorus, artisans were exempt from taxes because they were servants of the government or state. During this time the shudras were given the right of Varta. Kautilya considered Shudras as farmers.

(2) Status of Women

Compared to the Smriti Age, their status was better during the Mauryan Age. They have the right to remarry and Niyog. But they were not allowed to go out without her husband’s prior permission. Kautilya talked about eight types of marriage.

(a) Brahma vivah

Brahma marriage is where a boy can get married as soon as he completes his studentship, or Brahmacharya. Brahma marriage has the highest status among the eight types of Hindu marriage. But the girl’s father makes sure that the boy whom he wants to marry his daughter must know the Vedas.

(b) Daivya Vivah

In this type of marriage, the girl’s family waited for a specific time to get married. In case the girl could not find a suitable groom, she would marry in the place where the sacrifices are performed.

(c) Arsha Vivah

In this type of marriage, the bride was married in exchange for two cows.

(d) Prajapatya Vivah

it is something like a contemporary arranged marriage. Monetary transactions are not part of a Prajapati marriage.

(e) Gandharva Vivah

It was similar to a love marriage.

(f) Asura Viva

In this marriage there is no compatibility between bride and groom rather girls are exchanged instead of money.

(g) Rakshasa Vivah

In this type of marriage, the groom fought a battle with the bride’s family, defeated them, and carried the bride away to convince her to marry him. Due to the violent attempt, this is not considered correct.

(h) Paishacha Vivah

In this type of marriage, the bride was forced to marry against her will. A man captivated a girl of his choice got her drunk and married her while she remained unconscious.

Kautilya considered divorce a salvation. Both husband and wife had the right to divorce. Kautilya considered women as Anishkasini and Asuryapansaya. There were also some other categories of women such as:

(a) Ganika (courtesans)

They were appointed by the state.

(b) Rupajiva

They did independent prostitution. They used to pay taxes to the state. They had their own organization and its head was known as Bandhikposhaka. They served a wine known as Peyshalrupa. Kautilya suggested that they lived in the southern part of the empire.

(c) Samrangniya (bodyguards)

Kautilya and Megasthenes have mentioned them. They were the female bodyguards of Chandragupta Maurya.

(3) Slave system

The slave system prevailed in society. Kautilya mentioned nine types of slaves. According to him, Aryans cannot be slaves in any state. Only Malechians and non-Aryans could become slaves. But according to Megasthenes, there was no slavery in India. According to Kautilya, the son or daughter of any slave with the king would be considered his legitimate child.

(4) System of sati

Kautilya has not given any information about the system of sati. But Strabo mentioned that the sati system prevailed among the Kath tribes in the Punjab.

(5) Entertainment / Entertainment

There were several modes of entertainment like hunting, acting, magic, drama, painting, etc. Citizens entertained themselves through Vihara-yatra, Samaj, and Pravahana. Pravahana was a social function that involved gathering when it was organized.

Mauryan Art and Architecture

The origin of monumental stone sculpture and architecture in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the Harappan civilization or the Indus Valley civilization. However, there is a long gap after the decline of the Indus civilization or the Harappan civilization, and it was only in the Mauryan period that monumental stone sculpture and architecture reappeared on the scene.

(1) Jurisprudence

(a) Rovalian Buildings

The Greek historian Megasthenes described the palaces of the Mauryan Empire as one of the greatest creations of mankind and the Chinese traveler Fa-Hian called the Mauryan palaces as god-gifted monuments or monuments built by god and not by humans. Patliputra Megasthenes mentions that the cities were surrounded by wooden walls where a number of holes were made for the arrow to pass through. A trench measuring 60 feet by 600 feet was excavated along with the wall. The city had 64 entrances and 570 towns. The royal assembly building at Kumharas was a hall with 80 pillars. Its roof and floor were of wood and its size was 140 feet long and 120 feet wide. Patanjali also mentioned Chandragupta Rajsabha in his Mahabhashya. Arian/Eriyan compared Chandragupta’s palace with the buildings of Susa and Ekbatan.

(b) Pillars

The majestic free-standing Ashokan pillars symbolize the axis of the world that separates heaven and earth. Ashoka mainly used these pillars to propagate the Dhamma. The Ashokan pillars are very similar in shape and size to each other. They are made of red sandstone in Chunar (Mirzapur). They are considered monolithic with a height of 12 to 14 meters. The first pillar of Ashoka was found from Vaishali known as the Kolohe pillar. When it comes to art and architecture, Sarnath’s Ashoka Pillar is the best example. The smallest pillar is the Rummindei pillar and the most secure pillar so far is the Lauriya Nandangarh pillar. There are two types of pillars: pillars with an inscription and pillars without an inscription. There are 10 pillars on which inscriptions are written. Kaushambi pillar, Vaishali pillar, Rampurva pillar, and Sankisha pillar are the pillars without inscription. Basically, the pillars Ashoka of are divided into four categories. A cylindrical screw connects the top of the shaft to the head, a stone carved in the shape of an inverted lotus (bell head). At the top is a counter (platform) that supports the crowning animal or animals. The counter is square and smooth in the earlier pillars and circular and curved in the later ones. The motifs associated with the Ashokan pillars have rich and varied symbolism.

(c) Motifs associated with pillars

(i) One lion

Appears on Vaishali, Lauriya Nandangarh, and Rampurva pillars.

(ii) Elephant

An elephant capital was found at Sankisha.

(iii) Bull

It was found on the pillars of Rampurva.

(iv) Four lions

On Sarnath and Sanchi pillars.

(2) Caves

The Mauryan period was the beginning of cave architecture. Barabar and Nagarjuna hills contain several caves built by Ashoka and Dasharatha. The caves are simple but have highly polished interiors. The only sculptural decoration is a relief carving on the door of a cave known as the Lomas Rishi Cave. The doors are modeled after wooden ones. Above the entrance are two bands of relief carvings. The upper one has a latticework design, and the lower one has a lattice work design depicting elephants approaching the stupas. Ashoka and Dashratha dedicated these caves to the Ajiviks.

(3) Stupas

Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India since the Vedic period. The word stupa occurs twice in the Rig Veda. It is the symbol of Mahaparinirvana Buddha and is also considered as the axis of the universe. Stupas consists of a cylindrical drum with a circular dome and Harmika and Chhatra on top. A circular terrace (Medhi) enclosed by a railing surrounds the dome, which the worshipers are supposed to circumambulate in a clockwise direction, and this gallery is known as the Pradakshina path. The entire structure is enclosed by a low wall called Vedika, which is punctuated by Toranas (gates) on the four cardinal points. The core of the stupa was built of adobe bricks, the outer surface was made of fired bricks. Toranas were decorated with wooden sculptures. The remains of death were mainly kept in the stupas. The Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas. The Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest. There are several important stupas built by Ashoka for example: Bharhut Stupa, Sanchi Stupa, Dharmarajika Stupa at Sarnath and Taxila, Bodhgaya Stupa and Bairat Stupa. Ashoka’s reign marked an important stage in the history of Buddhist stupa architecture.

(4) Viharas

Viharas in India was originally built to protect monks during the rainy season when it was difficult for them to lead a vagabond life. At Patliputra, Ashoka built the Asokaram Vihara and the Kakuttaram Vihara.

(5) Stone Sculpture

Several large stone sculptures have been found at various places in and around Patna, Mathura, Madhya Pradesh, and other places. Many of them represent Yaksha and Yakshi. Other important examples of stone sculptures include a statue of a nude male figure found at Lohanipur in Patna. It is carved from Chunar sandstone and has a polished surface. Didarganj Yakshi was found in Didarganj village in Patna. The earliest mention of a Yaksha can be found in Silapadikaram, a Tamil text.

(6) Terracotta

Flourished with the expansion of urban centers. These include male and female figurines, animals, and carts. They are made of mud and are mostly found in Ayodhya. Pottery from the Mauryan period is generally referred to as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). Kosambi and Patliputra were centers of NBPW pottery.

(7) Foreign influence on Mauryan Art

Is there any foreign influence on Mauryan Art or not? It is disputed Several historians like Spooner, John Marshall, and Niharranjan Ray accept the influence of foreigners on Mauryan art & architecture by making the following points: i. It has been suggested that Ashoka got the idea of ​​writing his declarations on the pillars from the Persians. ii. Foreign influence has been identified in the polished surface of the Ashokan pillars and the animal motifs. iii. It has been pointed out that the words dipi and lipi occur in inscriptions of Darius as well as of Ashoka. However, the above facts cannot be completely accepted. Historians have also pointed out many differences between Mauryan and Persian art: i. The pillars of Persian art are built of separate segments of stone, while the Mauryan pillar is monolithic. ii. Mauryan columns have no base while Persian columns have a base. iii. The Mauryan-type counter and the independent animals carved in the columns are absent from Persian art. While there may be some similarities in specific features, the effect of the whole is quite different. Moreover, having his Dhamma message inscribed on the pillars, Ashoka transformed them into epigraphic monuments of unique cultural significance.

Mauryan Economy

(1) Revenue and Taxation System

The primary source of revenue for the state was land revenue. The royal share in the produce of the land is known as Bhaga and was generally one-sixth. It was based on the land used by each individual cultivator, not the village as a whole, and also in accordance with the quality of the land. Asoka reduced it to one-eighth of the production in Lumbini district, where Lord Buddha was born. There are two types of land:

(a)  State Land / Rajkiya Bhoomi

Income derived from this land is known as Sita. Those farmers who used their own seeds and farming tools to farm kept half of the produce for themselves, and those farmers who were given seeds and farming by the state could keep one-third or one-fourth for themselves and their farmers. the rest was sent to the state.

(b) Private land / Niji Bhoomi

Income from this land is known as Bhaga. This land belonged to the farmers. They had to pay one-fourth or one-sixth as tax.

The tax was collected both in cash and in kind. Rajukka took the measurements of the land. The tax-free villages were known as Pariharaka and the tax-free land was known as Udwalik or Parihar. There was also the concept of an emergency tax known as the Pranaya tax. According to Kautilya, this tax could be levied only once during the reign of a king. These were various other sources of income for the state. The state charged toll tax and trade tax on the sold goods. There was forest tax, drug tax, mining tax, irrigation tax, etc. Under the Mauryas some groups of people were exempted from taxes. Brahmins, students, women, blind, deaf, etc. were exempted from taxation.

(2) Agriculture

The most important feature of the economy was agriculture. Kautilya is the best industry. Kautilya mentions about three crops in a year while Megasthenes mentions two kinds of crops. The economy of the state was based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade. These three were collectively known as Varta. The Mauryan economy was essentially agrarian and most of the people were farmers. It was during the Mauryan period that the transition to agriculture was completed in India and agriculture became the basic economic activity of the people. The main crops were rice, barley, millet and wheat. There are also references to sugarcane, fruits, and vegetables.

(3) Industries

The main industry under the Mauryas was spinning and weaving yarn. Madura, Aparant, Kalinga, Kashi, Vatsa, and Mahishmati is mentioned as an important cotton center in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. The textile industry was regulated by the state. Kautilya mentions three varieties of Dukula which were the products of Vanga and Pundra. In the same connection, Kautilya mentions Kasi and Pundra linen fabrics. Bengal, Kamrupa, and Banaras were the main regions known as centers of the textile industry. As for more expensive textiles, there were mentions of silk canvas. Kautilya mentions Kausalya along with Chinese cloth of Chinese manufacture. This shows that silk of Chinese origin competed with silk produced in India. The manufacture of wool was an old and indigenous industry. Kautilya refers to the varieties of cloth made from sheep’s wool. Woodworking is a very old Indian industry. The art of the carpenter has reached a high level of skill. The excellence of craftsmanship in the Mauryan period can be seen in a wooden platform excavated near Patna.

(4) Communication and Transport

Roads and ports were important means of communication. There were four routes:

• (i) Uttarapath – Purushpur to Tamralipti. According to Megasthenes, this road was 1300 miles long. It was built by Chandragupta Maurya and during the reign of Sher Shah Suri, this road was known as Sadak-Azam. In Lord Auckland’s time, it was known as the Grand Trunk Road.
• (ii) Dakshinapatha – Shravasti to Pratishthan.
• (iii) The third route connected Bhrigukachchha with Mathura. (iv) The fourth journey started from Champa to Kaushambi.

(5) Ports

Barbairikam – Located in Sindh, Bhrigukachchha (Bharroach) – The Greeks called it Berigaja, sopra, these three ports were located in the western parts of the empire. Tamralipti was an important port on the eastern side. Mauryans had trade relations with Babylonia. Niarcus and Arian mentioned that Indian traders wore white leather shoes and sold Mukta (pearls) in Greek markets. Kautilya in his Arthashastra mentioned import duties which were 10% on imported goods. The state also directly participated in trade and commerce. The state had a monopoly on some products like wine, salt, mine, ships, forests, etc. The supreme authority of trade was known as Panyadhyksha.

(6) Trade and Commerce

The rise of Nandas and Mauryas greatly helped to improve India’s inland and foreign trade. Foreign trade was carried on with Syria, Egypt, Greece, etc., in the west. After the conquest of Kalinga with its seaport on the east coast of India. It continued with Southeast Asian countries and China. The state managed foreign trade and licenses were issued for it. The main exports were spices, pearls, diamonds, sandalwood, ivory, cotton cloth, silk yarn, muslin, etc. The main imports were flax, silver, gold, dry fruits, etc. The Mauryan state exercised strict control over all trade and industry. The Chief Superintendent of Trade (Panyadhyaksha) fixed the prices of goods and intervened wherever there was a surplus of any goods. An important aspect of the economic condition of Mauryan India or the Mauryan economy was the state monopoly of mining and metallurgy. It was a source of great income. The head of mining was Akradhyaksha, whose duty it was to look for new mines and reopen old and disused ones. The state had an unlimited monopoly in the salt trade, and a superintendent looked after the salt mines. There was a manager of iron and he was in charge of making things out of iron.

(7) Weights and measures

Dron – for weighing grains, Nivartan – for measuring soil. Aratni – for measuring rain Suvarnamashak/ Rattika was the smallest unit of measurement. The Manadhyaksha worked under the Paut Adhyaksha and supervised the weights and measures.

(8) Coins

In Arthashastra, coins were called “Roop”. Other types of coins are Nishaka/Suvarna – gold coins, and Karshapan/Dharan/Pann – silver coins. Pann was the main coin of the Mauryas. It was regulated by the State. They are also called hallmarked coins. These coins were embossed with several images such as snakes, peacocks, and trees. The coins only had images and no information or inscriptions were written on them. Mashak/Kakini – there was copper The Arthashastra states that there were also state mints and their head was known as Lakshanadhyaksha. Rupdarshaka was known as the examiner of coins. In July the economic month of Mauryas started.

Mauryan Administration

The Mauryans organized a huge administrative system. A detailed account is produced in the Indica of Megasthenes and the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Chandragupta Maurya was not only a ruler but also an able administrator. The administrative structure established by him was continued by his successors and no change was considered necessary except that Ashoka tried to liberalize it further and elaborated on the public duties of civil servants. The basic principles of the Mauryans lost control over the administration.

(1) King

The king was the main head of state. He had legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He was the commander-in-chief of the army and planned military operations with the commander-in-chief. There is no mention in contemporary records of the election of kings, whether native or foreign. Usually, the eldest son ascended the throne. Kautilya laid great emphasis on the education and training of the king in the art of governance and administration. According to him, the body politic gets sick if the king lacks discipline and is ignorant. Therefore the king must be acquainted with the four branches of human knowledge, viz., Anvikshiki (philosophy), Trayi (three Vedas), Varta (economics), and Dandaniti (science of governance). A king should exercise self-control and defeat righteous anger, greed, pride, haughtiness, and vanity. In a highly centralized administration, kings appointed ministers, and high officials and established a well-planned system of supervision and inspection. King was assisted by his council of ministers headed by Mantriparishadadhyaksha. The Mantriparishada was also the head of the civil servants called Adhyakshas or Amatyas who kept in touch with all sections of the society and formed a highly skilled secretariat divided into several departments. Some of these departments and their Adhyakshas are listed below: Sannidhata (Royal Treasury), Nagaradhyaksha (Manager of Mines), Suvarnaadhyaksha (Gold Supervisor), Panyaadhyaksha (Trade Supervisor), Kupyadhyaksha (Forest Officer), Lavanadhyaksha (Salthyaksha Department), Sitata).

Mauryan kings based on the following advice of Kautilya “In the happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the king, in their welfare, his welfare, he should not consider the good that pleases him, he should consider the good that pleases his subjects”. The king had a strong bodyguard. When he went hunting or inspecting, he was protected by a troop of 24 elephants.

(2) Ministers

Next to the king, the minister occupied an important place in politics, Kautilya’s view is that real sovereignty is to be achieved by three powers, viz., Mantrisakti (statecraft), Prabhusakti (treasury), Utashsakti (energy). and enthusiasm). According to Kautilya, “Sovereignty is possible only with help. A single wheel never moves, so he employs ministers and hears their opinions. Ministers, he says, are the eyes of the king.” The Council of Ministers is called the Parishad. Kautilya refers to two kinds of ministers i.e. Martins and Amatyas. The Martins formed the inner circle of the Parishad, which corresponded to the modern cabinet. They included the Prime Minister, Purohita, Commander-in-Chief, and Yuvraj. Dwarika, Antar Vamsika, Prashasta, Samharta, and other Amatyas formed the outer circle of the Parishad. The cabinet created the policies while the Amayts implemented them. Besides the Amatyas, the Mantri Parishad included the leaders of Paur-Janapada. They were called Mahamatyas. Kautilya was for a small cabinet. He advised the king to consult three or four ministers, as the advice of one was not desirable. The ministers were undoubtedly directly responsible to the king for the proper performance of their duties.

(3) Paura-Janapada

The Paura Janapada was a gathering of people from the city and the country. This assembly could demand Anguttaras or favors from the king in times of crisis. This congregation could do social work and provide relief to the poor and helpless. Paura Janapada acted as a powerful check on royal authority. Provinces were also known as “Chakra”. Ashoka himself visited the provinces to check proper law and order. The broad division of provinces is as follows: Northern Uttarapath (Taxila), Western Avantipatha (Ujjain), Central Provinces (Magadha), Eastern Prachyapath (Toshali/Kalinga), Southern Dakshinapatha (Suvarnagi). Each province had a governor or viceroy, who was sometimes a prince of royal blood. Princes, when appointed viceroys, were called Kumar Mahamatras, while the rest of the viceroys were simply designated as Mahamatras. It is believed that there was an advisory committee at the center like a council of ministers to assist each Mahamatra. There were many other officers who helped him continue the Mauryan administration. According to Dr. The Altekara provincial government was required to maintain law and order, collect taxes for the central government, co-operate in the work of its various departments, and supervise the feudatories and border people. The provinces were further divided into mandals (commissioners) and their head was known as Pradeshta.

(4) District Administration/Aahar/Vishay

Each was administered by officers ie Pradeshika, Yukta, and Rajukka. Pradeshika was the elder and Rajukka was the subordinate. Yukta was subservient to both. It was the duty of Pradeshika to circumambulate the kingdom every five years and collect details of the administration. They carried on the revenue and general administration in the Sthanikas and Gopas districts with their own staff of officials. A gopa was in charge of five to ten villages, in which he supervised the maintenance of boundaries, registered gifts, sales, and mortgages, and kept an accurate inventory of the people and their material resources. Sthanika had similar duties in the district under him and Gopa necessarily functioned under him. The Sthanikas were responsible to the Samaharta, who commanded the services of the Pradeshtris, who were identical to the Pradeshikas of the Ashoka inscription, for the supervision of local administration. In the district administration, there were superintendents of various grades for various departments.

(5) Village Administration

The village was the smallest unit of administration in charge of an official named Gramika. He was not a paid servant of the crown but an elected official of the village. This explains the omission of his name in the list of paid officials given by Kautilya. The village elders (gram-videos) are frequently mentioned in the Arthashastra and have a share in guiding and helping the people in general and assisting the government officials in settling petty disputes arising in the village.

(6) Urban administration

Megasthenes gives a detailed account of the administration of Patliputra and it can be assumed that other important cities were administered in a similar manner. According to Megasthenes, Patliputra was controlled by a city commission of 30 members who were divided into 6 councils of five members each. The first board dealt with industrial art. Its duty was to check counterfeiting and to establish just rates of wages; the second board dealt with foreigners. Foreigners were closely watched by officials who provided them with suitable accommodation. escort and medical care, the third board dealt with the systematic registration of births and deaths, and the fourth board dealt with trade and commerce. It regulated sales and enforced the use of properly stamped weights and measures, the Fifth Council was in charge of supervising manufactories, and the function of the Sixth Council was to collect tithes from the value of goods sold. All the municipal commissioners in their collective capacity were required to control all the affairs of the city and to keep the markets, temples, harbors, and public works in order.

(7) Judicial Administration

The Mauryan state had a very efficient judicial system. The king was the head of justice. There were two classes of courts. Dharmasthiya court and Kantakshodhan court. Dharmasthiya (diwani) were civil courts that tried cases relating to contracts, gifts, agreements, sales, marriages, etc. Kantak Shodhan (Faujdari) courts were criminal courts that dealt with cases of theft, robbery, murder, sexual offenses, etc. Supreme Court was in the capital and presided over by the king as chief judge. There were subordinate courts at provincial, divisional, and district headquarters. In addition, villages had popular courts composed of village elders who tried minor cases. The Mauryan penal code was very strict. It sanctioned torture, trials, mutilation, etc. Capital punishment was in vogue under Ashoka even after his conversion to Buddhism.

(8) Espionage

Kautilya laid great stress on the system of espionage to promote progress, efficiency, and stability in the state. Both men and women once worked as spies. During the Mauryan period, they had several names like Overseers – Megasthenes, Inspectors – Stabo, Gudha-purush – In Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Mahamatyapasharpa was the head of the spies. There were mainly two types of spies: (i) Sanstha – they were stationed in one place. (ii) Sanchara – once roamed the realm. Spies were kept not only by the emperor but also by all important representatives of the state. They were also commissioned by the ruling countries. The emperor, with the help of spies, informed himself about all the important affairs of the state.

Military Organization of the Mauryan Empire

The Mauryas maintained a large well-equipped army that was three times the size of the Nandas. The Mauryan army consisted of four wings i.e. infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots. The fighting force of the Mauryan government consisted of 60,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants. The Arthashastra also refers to camel and donkey choirs. The administration of the army was handled by a war bureau consisting of 30 members who were divided into six councils of 5 members each: The first was in charge of the navy. The second board was about transport. The third board dealt with infantry. The fourth board dealt with cavalry. The fifth council was in charge of the car. The sixth board was in charge of elephants. Senapati was the head of the department. Kautilya divided the army into three parts: The standing army of the king. Mercenary army. Municipal troops. In the words of Dr. G. M. Bongard-Levina, the Mauryan age is marked by the spread of iron, the development of agriculture, crafts and trade, growth and cities, etc. Kautilya ranks the science of economics among the four basic sciences, including the teaching of agriculture, animal husbandry, and commerce. The use of iron especially allowed the development of new areas, densely forested areas along the Ganges.

Decline and Breakup of the Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire was the first empire in the history of India. It witnessed many great rulers like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka who conducted their rule in their own unique way and maintained a vast empire for decades. But the empire became unhappy in the last few years and began to decline due to the following reasons:

(1) Ashoka’s neutral policy failed to support Brahmin rule

This view is given by Pandit Harprashad Shastri. According to him, Ashoka’s policies upset the Brahmins, leading to their backlash and eventually the Brahmin Revolution. This is evidenced by the murder of Brihadratha, the last Mauryan emperor, by his commander-in-chief the Brahmin Pushyamitra Sunga. But this view was condemned by Hem Chandra Rai Chaudhary, who argued that if the Mauryas’ policy had been anti-Brahmin, they would never have had a Brahmin as their commander-in-chief. In the true sense of the word, it was only an armed rebellion for the usurpation of power, which should not be seen as a religious battle.

(2) Non-violent and peaceful policy of Ashoka

This was the opinion of Hemchandra Rai Chaudhary. He criticized Ashoka by calling him a ruler far from reality and a dreamer. However it cannot be considered complete, as he did not completely adopt a policy of peace. As in his 13th Major Rock Edict, he speaks of the punishment to be meted out to those who did not follow the Dhamma. Bhandarkar also condemned his Dhamma policy and considered it the reason for the decline of the Mauryan Empire.

(3) The exploitative rule of the province of Amatyas

There is evidence of local revolts in the time of Bindusara and also of Ashoka in Taxila. Subjects. Taxila declared that they were not against Emperor Ashoka but against the local Amatyas. This shows that the Amatians were gradually becoming despotic. According to Niharranjan Rai, the main reason for the decline of the Mauryan Empire was the revolts of the subjects.

(4) Economic Decline

This view was given by D.D. Koshambi. It is clear that the Mauryas displayed a vast empire. So they kept a huge amount of taxes. On the other hand, Ashoka made huge grants to Buddhist monks and monasteries. According to the Divyavadana, when Ashoka was denied the use of his royal treasury for grants, he began making these grants using his personal property, leading him to empty both his personal property and the royal treasury. According to Patanjali, the Mauryan kings eventually began selling the idols of their gods and goddesses to fill their empty coffers. This became the main factor in their decline.

(5) Extreme centralization of administration and power

According to Romila Thapar, there was a lack of sovereignty among all administrative units because the state intervened from the center to the lowest unit of administration. A powerful network of bureaucrats and spies was established in every corner of the empire. This made the whole system more complicated. After Ashoka’s death, weak successors led to the weakening of the state, which led to the transformation of administration from centralized to decentralized and ultimately contributed to the decline of the empire.

(6) Spread of new scientific knowledge to the extreme parts of India

It is believed that the Magadh Empire witnessed several new discoveries and inventions in recent decades, for example, the use of coins, cultivation of cross and mixed crops, etc. Prof. Ramsharan Sharma is of the opinion that industrial and scientific development is a factor for the development and building of every empire, when this development began to reach the extreme parts of India, leading to the rise of new powers, eg the Satvahanas. These new powers led to the weakening of the Mauryas.

(7) Weak Successors and Decay of the Empire

One of the most important factors in the success of Magadha imperialism was the rise of strong rulers one after the other, but after Ashoka the chart declined and weak successors followed him one after the other. Thus they led the empire to its decline. Moreover, after Ashoka’s death, the empire disintegrated, eventually leading to its decline.

Conclusion

The establishment of the Mauryan Empire was a turning point in the history of the Indian territory. The control of this massive empire continued for a long period of almost 140 years over a large part of northern India. After the overthrow of the Nanda dynasty in Magadha, the Mauryas came into prominence. The empire came into existence when Chandragupta. Maurya stepped into the vacuum created by the departure of Alexander the Great from the western frontiers of India. He was aided and advised in his rise to power by his chief minister, Kautilya, who wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on kingly power and governance.

(FAQ) Questions and Answers about the Mauryan Empire