Role of Philosophers in the French Revolution

This meta-narrative explores the influential role of philosophers in the French Revolution and shows how Enlightenment thinkers laid the intellectual foundations for revolutionary ideals. From Montesquieu’s ideas on the separation of powers to Rousseau’s theory of the social contract and Voltaire’s defense of free speech, the overview highlights how these philosophical principles supported calls for liberty, equality, and fraternity during the Revolutionary period. It delves into the influence of Enlightenment thought on challenging traditional authority, inspiring pressure for political change, and shaping a revolutionary narrative. This meta-description provides a glimpse of how the intellectual contributions of philosophers became the driving force behind the ideological underpinnings of the French Revolution.

Role of Philosophers in the French Revolution

Introduction

Towards the end of the 18th century, Europe was shaken by the uprising of the French people against autocracy and aristocracy, which became known as the French Revolution. The French Revolution brought about a major transformation of society and the political system in France, which lasted from 1789 to 1799. During the revolution, France was temporarily transformed from an absolute monarchy, where the king monopolized power, to a republic of theoretically free and equal citizens. The consequences of the French Revolution were widespread both inside and outside of France, and the revolution ranks among the most important events in the history of Europe. Over the course of ten years, France’s revolution first transformed and then dismantled the Ancien Régime (Old Order), the political and social system that existed in France before 1789, and replaced it with a series of different governments. Although none of these governments lasted more than four years, many of the initiatives they enacted permanently changed the French political system. These initiatives included the drafting of several drafts of rights and constitutions, the establishment of legal equality for all citizens, experiments with representative democracy, the integration of the church into the state, the reconstruction of state administration and the legal order. Many of these changes were adopted elsewhere in Europe. In some places the change was a matter of choice, but in others it was introduced by the French army during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1797) and the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815). For later generations of Europeans and non-Europeans who sought to overturn their political and social systems, the French Revolution provided the most influential model of popular uprising until the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Philosophers’ Contribution

In addition to economic and social difficulties, the ancien régime was intellectually undermined by the apostles of the Enlightenment. Philosophers were extremely critical of antiquity. In their writings, French philosophers discredited the old order and created optimism about the future. Philosophers introduced ideas such as constitutional monarchy, republicanism, popular sovereignty and social equality and influenced the course of the revolution. Voltaire attacked the Church and absolutism; Montesquieu made English constitutionalism fashionable and advocated the Theory of Separation of Powers, Rousseau promoted the Theory of the Social Contract through which he emphasized his concept of popular sovereignty. His influence on the French Revolution was more direct than that of any other philosopher. Denis Diderot and the encyclopedists attacked tradition and the ancien régime through articles on various topics. Physiocrats advocated economic reform. They were followed by prominent French philosophers who inspired the French Revolution of 1789. French philosophers were not conscious advocates of violent revolution. When the revolution came, one of the philosophers who witnessed its violence wrote: “The philosophers did not want to do all that was done, nor to use the means that were used, nor to act as quickly as it happened. “. They were the enemies of ancient abuses which had long required suppression. Reason moved them to attack the forces of superstition, ignorance and folly which continue and incompetent administration, an oppressive financial system, barbarous judicial proceedings, religious cruelty, economic waste and confusion. Philosophers in several ways demonstrated the rottenness of French institutions through satire and wit, criticism and comparison, analogy, sociological theory, and outright abuse. French philosophers questioned tradition and the authority of the king. They believed that the Ancien Régime must go to bring about a better world. Philosophers questioned the basis of authority that existed when revelation (religion), formulated new theories, awakened new enthusiasms, and shaped new ideas for all mankind. The philosophers were the standard bearers of the faith that spread from France throughout the civilized world. While destroying the old order, they laid the foundation of a new order.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

Voltaire’s intelligence, wit, and style made him one of France’s greatest writers and philosophers. famous writer and critic, much sought after by Louis XV. from France, Frederick the Great from Prussia and Catherine the Great from Russia. Through his poems, biographies, histories, essays and plays, he attacked traditions and beliefs as well as existing institutions such as church and state. Francois Marie Arouet (pseudonym of Voltaire) was born on November 21, 1694 in Paris. He was the son of a notary public. He was educated at the Jesuit college of Louis-le-Grand, where he said he learned nothing but “Latin and nonsense”. He left school at 17 and soon made friends among Parisian aristocrats. His witty verses made him a favorite in social circles. Due to insults wrongly attributed to him by the Regent Philippe II d’Orléans, Voltaire was sent to the Bastille for 11 months in 1717. During his time in prison, Francois Marie wrote “Oedipe”, which was to become his first theatrical success, and adopted his pseudonym “Voltaire”. He also undertook the writing of an epic poem about Henry IV, the “Henriade”. It was at this time that he began calling himself Voltaire. Oedipus won him fame and a pension from the regent. Voltaire acquired an independent fortune by speculation; he was often known for his generosity, but he also displayed shrewd business acumen during his lifetime and became a millionaire.

In 1726, a young nobleman, the Chevalier de Rohan, resented a joke made at his expense by a beaten Voltaire. Far from achieving justice, Voltaire was imprisoned in the Bastille by the influence of the powerful House of Rohan. He was released only after promising to go into exile in England. This episode left an indelible impression on Voltaire: for the rest of his life he exerted himself as much as he could in the fight against the will of the court. During more than two years (1726-29) in England, Voltaire met the English literary men of the day. Voltaire was attracted to the philosophy of John Locke and the ideas of the mathematician and scientist Sir Isaac Newton. He studied the English constitutional monarchy and its religious tolerance. While in England, Voltaire wrote the first of his historical works. “History of Charles XII of Sweden”, which remains a classic in biography.

Voltaire was particularly interested in the philosophical rationalism of the time and in the study of the natural sciences. He was impressed by the greater freedom of thought in England. Voltaire’s “Letters Concerning the English Nation,” which appeared in 1733 in English and in 1734 in French as “Lettres Philosophiques,” may be said to have begun the fashion in English philosophy and science which characterized the literature of the Enlightenment. Voltaire praised English customs and institutions in this book. In this work Voltaire described a country, England, where opinion was free and government constitutional; where religious persecution was unknown, and everyone was allowed to go to heaven in his own way; where the middle class was as respectable as the nobility; where civil liberties were guaranteed and men of letters and scientists were honored. Voltaire pointed out the lack of these laudable traits in French polity and society. It was interpreted as a criticism of the French government and in 1734 the book was formally banned in France and in 1734 Voltaire was forced to leave Paris again.

After his return to France from England in 1729 and his expulsion from Paris in 1734, Voltaire produced several tragedies. These included ‘Brutus’ (1730) and ‘Zaire’ (1732). In 1733 he met Madame Emile du Châtelet, whose intellectual interests, especially in science, coincided with his own. They settled together at Cirey in Lorraine. In 1746 Voltaire was elected to the “Academie Francaise”. In 1749, after the death of Emile du Chatelet and at the invitation of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, Voltaire moved to Potsdam near Berlin, Germany. In 1753 Voltaire left Potsdam to return to France. In 1759, Voltaire bought an estate called Ferney near the Franco-Swiss border, where he lived until his death. Ferney soon became the intellectual capital of Europe. Voltaire worked nonstop for years, producing a steady stream of books, plays, and other publications. He wrote hundreds of letters to his circle of friends and received crowds of visitors who came to pay their respects to the “Patriarch of Ferney”. He was always the voice of reason. Voltaire was often an outspoken critic of religious intolerance and persecution, and engaged in seeking justice for victims of religious or political persecution and campaigning against the practice of torture. He regularly contributed to the Encyclopedia and managed his property and took an active interest in improving the condition of his tenants.

Voltaire also edited the works of Corneille, wrote commentaries on Racine, and produced a stream of anonymous novels and pamphlets attacking the established institutions of his time. Ironically, it is one of these great works, “Candide” (1759), that is the most widely read today. It is a masterpiece among his “philosophical romances.” In 1778, at the age of 84, Voltaire triumphantly returned to France to attend the first performance of his tragedy “Irene” in Paris. But the emotions were too much for him and he died in Paris soon after. To obtain a Christian burial, he signed a partial retraction of his writings. This was considered insufficient by the church, but he refused to sign a more general appeal. He gave the following written statement to a friend: “I die adoring God, love my friends, hate my enemies, and hate persecution.” An abbot secretly transported Voltaire’s corpse to an abbey in Champagne, where he was buried. His remains were taken back to Paris in 1791 and buried in the Pantheon. Through his philosophical writings, Voltaire became the torchbearer of the French Revolution of 1789. He boldly attacked the ancien regime and criticized existing political and religious beliefs and institutions. His plays, historical works, and philosophical writings inspired the French people to question the political, social, and economic conditions that existed in France.

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Montesquieu was one of the great political philosophers of the Enlightenment. He produced a naturalistic account of the various forms of government and the causes which made them what they were, and which promoted or restrained their development. He used this message to explain how governments can be protected from corruption. He regarded despotism as a danger to any government that was not already despotic. To prevent despotism, Montesquieu argued that it was best prevented by a system in which different bodies exercised legislative, executive, and judicial powers, and in which all these bodies were bound by a legal order. This separation of powers theory had a huge impact on liberal political theory. Montesquieu’s Theory of the Separation of Powers greatly contributed to the creation of the Constitution of the United States of America and also inspired the French people in their revolution against the autocratic regime in France.

Montesquieu’s original name was Charles Louis de Secondat. He was born in Bordeaux, France in 1689 to a wealthy family. Despite his family’s wealth, De Secondat was placed in the care of a poor family during his childhood. He later went to college and studied science and history, eventually becoming a lawyer in the local government. De Secondat’s father died in 1713 and he was placed in the care of his uncle Baron de Montesquieu. The Baron died in 1716, leaving De Secondat his fortune, the office of President of the Parliament of Bordeaux, and the title of Baron de Montesquieu. He later became a member of Bordeaux and the French Academy of Sciences and studied the laws and customs and governments of the countries of Europe. He became famous in 1721 for his “Persian Letters”, which criticized the lifestyle and liberties of the rich French and the Church. However, Montesquieu’s book “On the Spirit of Laws”, published in 1748, was his most famous work. He outlined his ideas about how government would best function.

Montesquieu became famous for his “Persian Letters” (1721), which criticized the lifestyle and liberties of the wealthy French, as well as the church and national governments of France. “Persian Letters” is an epistolary novel consisting of letters sent by two fictitious Persians, Usbek and Rice, who set out for Europe in 1711 and remained there until at least 1720, when the novel ends. Although Montesquieu was not the first writer to try to imagine what European culture might look like to travelers from non-European countries, he used this device with particular brilliance. Many letters are brief descriptions of scenes or characters. Their humor initially derives mainly from the fact that Usbek and Rica misinterpret what they see. In later letters, Usbek and Rica already misinterpret what they see; but the behavior of the Europeans seems quite incomprehensible to them. They describe people who are so consumed with vanity that they become ridiculous. Usbek shares many of Montesquieu’s own views, such as the contrast between European and non-European societies, the advantages and disadvantages of different systems of government, the nature of political authority, and the proper role of law. He says that the best government is that “which accomplishes its purpose with the least difficulty” and “governs the people in a manner best adapted to their inclinations and desires.”

Montesquieu lived in England from 1729 to 1731 and greatly admired the English political system. As a lawyer and student of constitutional government, Montesquieu summarized his ideas in his book ‘L’ Esprit Des Lois’ (The Spirit of the Laws) published in 1748. Montesquieu’s aim in “The Spirit of the Laws” is to explain human laws and social institutions. Montesquieu believed that all things consist of rules or laws that never change. He embarked on a scientific study of these laws with the hope that knowledge of the laws of government would reduce the problems of society and improve human life. According to Montesquieu, there were three types of government: monarchy (ruled by a king or queen), republic (ruled by an elected leader), and despotism (ruled by a dictator). Montesquieu believed that a government elected by the people was the best form of government. However, he believed that the success of a democracy, a government in which the people have power, depends on maintaining the right balance of power.

Montesquieu argued that the best government would be one in which power was balanced between three groups of officials. He believed that England, which divided power between the king (who enforced the laws), the parliament (who made the laws) and the judges of the English courts (who interpreted the laws), was a good model of this. Montesquieu called the idea of ​​dividing government power into three branches the “separation of powers”. He considered it most important to create separate branches of government with equal but different powers. In this way, the government would avoid placing too much power in one individual or group of individuals. He wrote, “When the legislative and coercive powers are united in one person … there can be no liberty.” According to Montesquieu, each branch of government could limit the power of the other two branches. Therefore, no branch of government could threaten the freedom of the people. His ideas on the separation of powers became the basis for the United States Constitution.

“Montesquieu advocated constitutionalism, preservation of civil liberties, abolition of slavery, succession, moderation, peace, internationalism, social and economic justice with due respect for national and local tradition. He believed in justice and the rule of law; he hated all forms of extremism and fanaticism; he put his faith in the balance of power and the division of power as a weapon against the despotic rule of individuals, groups, or majorities; and he approved of social equality, but not to the point of endangering the liberty of the individual; of liberty, not to the point of infringing on good government.” Sir Isaiah Berlin.

Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean Jacques Rousseau was considered the father of the French Revolution. His influence on French society was far greater than that of any other philosopher. In fact, it was Rousseau who provided the intellectual foundation of the French Revolution. His greatest contribution to political philosophy was the famous book “The Social Contract”. Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland on June 28, 1712. His father was a watchmaker. His mother died shortly after his birth and his upbringing was haphazard. At the age of 16, Rousseau began the life of a vagabond. During this period, in 1728, he came into contact with Louise de Warens, who became his patron and later his lover. She arranged for him to travel to Turin, where he became an unenthusiastic Roman Catholic convert. After serving as a footman to a powerful family, he left Turin and spent most of the next dozen years in Chambéry, Savoy, with his patron. In 1742 he went to Paris and came into contact with the circle of Denis Diderot, who was the editor of the Encyclopedia. Rousseau contributed articles on music to the encyclopedia. His autobiographical account Les Confessions (Confessions), written in 1783, offers a glimpse into his tumultuous life.

In 1749, Rousseau won first prize in a competition organized by the Academy of Dijon on the question: “Has the progress of the sciences and arts contributed to the corruption or improvement of human conduct?” Rousseau took a negative stance, arguing that mankind is good by nature and has been completely corrupted by civilization. Rousseau argued that man is essentially good, a “noble savage” when in a “state of nature” (the state of all other animals and the state man was in before the creation of civilization and society), and that good men are unhappy and corrupted by their experience in the company. He viewed society as “artificial” and “corrupt” and that the development of society resulted in the continued unhappiness of man. Rousseau’s essay made him famous and controversial. Although it is still widely believed that Rousseau’s entire philosophy was based on his call for a return to nature, this view is an oversimplification caused by the overemphasis placed on this first essay. In the second philosophical essay, “Discourse on the Arts and Sciences” (1750), Rousseau argued that the progress of the arts and sciences was not beneficial to mankind. He suggested that advances in knowledge made governments stronger and crushed individual liberty. He concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of sincere friendship, replacing it with jealousy, fear and suspicion.

“Discourse on the Origin of Inequality” (1755) is one of Rousseau’s most advanced and daring philosophical productions. In this revolutionary work, Rousseau argues that every variety of injustice found in human society is the artificial result of the control exercised by defective political and intellectual influences over the healthy natural impulses of otherwise noble savages. After its publication, Rousseau returned to Geneva, reverted to Protestantism to regain his citizenship, and returned to Paris with the title “Citizen of Geneva”. An alternative to his philosophical thought expressed in the “Discourse on the Origin of Inequality” was his monumental work “On the Social Contract” written in 1762. Rousseau’s theory of the social contract established a new scheme of social organization. Rousseau believed that “man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.” He argued that all human beings have certain natural rights and freedoms. These are the right to life, liberty and property. Rousseau further emphasized that human beings no longer owed obedience to any government that failed to protect these rights and liberties. He was the first philosopher to promote the concept of popular sovereignty. He justified the right of people to rebel against a tyrannical government.

Rousseau believed in the establishment of an ideal state with a just society in which individual citizens submit their person and their power to the general will, i.e. the law. The three great ideals of the French Revolution “liberty, equality and fraternity” are found in Rousseau’s “Social Contract”. In addition to the above philosophical works, Rousseau also wrote a number of books and pamphlets on various subjects during his stay in Switzerland, Luxembourg, England and France. The most important of these are: “Discourse on Political Economy” (1755), “New Heloise” (1761), “Emile” (1762), “Constitutional Program for Corsica” (1765) and “Reflections on the Government of Poland” (1772). Although the authorities made every effort to suppress Rousseau’s writings, the ideas they expressed, along with those of Locke, were highly influential during the French Revolution.

Rousseau was one of the first modern writers to seriously challenge the institution of private property, and is therefore considered the forerunner of modern socialism and communism. Rousseau also challenged the assumption that the will of the majority is always right. He argued that the goal of government should be to ensure freedom, equality and justice for all within the state regardless of the will of the majority. One of the central tenets of Rousseau’s political philosophy is that politics and morality should not be separated. When the state does not act morally, it ceases to function properly and ceases to exercise real authority over the individual. The second important principle is freedom, for the preservation of which the state is created.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Diderot was a French philosopher and man of letters, the chief editor of the encyclopedia, one of the main literary monuments of the Enlightenment. The work lasted 26 years of Diderot’s life. In seventeen volumes of text and eleven illustrations, she presented in a single work the achievements of human learning. In addition to the summary of information about all theoretical knowledge, she also questioned the authority of the Catholic Church. Denis Diderot was born in Langres, the son of a successful knife maker. He was first educated by the Jesuits. During this period he read and studied books of all kinds; his favorites were such classics as Horace and Homer. In 1732, Diderot received a Master of Arts degree from the University of Paris. His father expected him to study medicine or law, but Diderot spent his time with books. To earn a living, Diderot worked for the lawyer Clement de Ris as a lecturer and freelance writer. Diderot first gained attention in the 1840s as a translator of English books. Diderot wrote an article “Letter on the Blind” in which he questioned the existence of God, for which he was imprisoned for three months for his views.

In 1745, Diderot became editor of the encyclopedia with the mathematician Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, who later resigned because he believed that mathematics was a more fundamental science than biology. Diderot expanded its scope and made it an organ for radical and revolutionary views. The encyclopedia was published between 1751 and 1772 in 17 volumes of text and 11 volumes of engravings. The encyclopedia included many of the ideas of great French philosophers such as Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. In addition to the latest findings, the Encyclopaedia revealed the miserable conditions the country has fallen into. It exposed a society based on inequality, injustice, exploitation and slavery and promoted revolutionary ideas.

Physiocrats

Physiocrats were economists and social philosophers of the eighteenth century. The school of physiocrats was founded by the French economist Francois Quesnay. The factors responsible for the rise of the Physiocratic School were numerous. They included the growing importance of agriculture in France, the unsatisfactory results of the economic theory of mercantilism, the poor state of French finances after the Seven Years’ War (1756-63), and the rise of liberalism in political and social thought. Physiocrats held that the economy is governed by natural laws and that government should not interfere with the workings of the natural economic order. They advocated economic liberalism, free trade, free competition and the abolition of all special privileges. They were strong defenders of rights to hold property, especially land.

Besides Francois Quesnay, other leading figures among the physiocrats were Gournay, Mirabeau and Turgot. Quesnay explained his views in his famous book “Tableau Economique” (1758). As the son of a prosperous farmer, Quesnay strongly emphasized the status of agriculture. In his view, land is the only source of wealth, and only that mass of agricultural and mineral products that is not consumed in the production process should be taxed. He took his position with the principle “Poor peasant, poor kingdom, poor kingdom, poor monarch”.

According to the Physiocrats, society is divided into three groups

Farmers, landowners, and everyone else. Farmers were assumed to be fully productive. Landowners were considered partially productive because they cooperated with farmers in the use and improvement of the land. However, the Physiocrats believed that members of the third group, which included people associated with commerce and industry, were completely unproductive. Quesnay and his followers also emphasized the importance of free competition in creating a healthy economy and establishing good prices in agriculture. They favored little government interference with natural law in the economy. That means they were for Laissez Faire. They argued that government activities should be limited to the protection of persons and property. The Physiocrats advocated the abolition of all indirect taxes and the introduction of a single tax on net income from land.

Conclusion

As far as the revolution is concerned, the contribution of the thinkers may be questionable, but they predicted the revolution. The thinkers may not have spawned the doctrines of the revolution, but they undoubtedly spread it. The writers, through their collective efforts, instilled in most people the mentality that whatever they experienced in France was inadequate and full of mistakes. They formed a group of leaders and presented them with certain principles, idioms, and material for discussion. Moreover, they instilled a strong hope in their mind and paved the way for their success. Writers exposed all the flaws and evils that were rampant in the French system of government so effectively that people were forced to turn their attention to the factors of the crisis and discuss them with great enthusiasm. Overall, it can be concluded from the above facts that if the thinkers and writers did not become the decisive agents of the revolution, their provocative ideas proved to be good stimuli for the revolution. They were representative of those driving forces which troubled the outer layers of French life. The nature of the writers was like the blazing heat which radiates from an erupted volcano, and which never ceases to penetrate with radiant heat every object which comes in contact with it. The fire of their ideas consumed the ties that intellectuals maintained with established authority and order.

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