The French Revolution

The French Revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, was a transformative period in French history that marked the end of absolute monarchy and the rise of radical political and social change.

Fueled by economic hardship, social inequality, and a desire for political representation, the Revolution saw the French people overthrow the monarchy, leading to the creation of the First French Republic

Key events included the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the abolition of feudal privileges, and the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793. The revolutionaries sought the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, but the era also saw internal conflicts, radical political shifts, and external warfare with other European nations.

The French Revolution left a lasting impact on France and the world, influencing political ideologies, legal systems, and the concept of nationalism. Despite its problems and internal contradictions, the revolution reshaped the political landscape and paved the way for the spread of democratic ideals in the following centuries.

The French Revolution

Historical Events	The French Revolution
Period	1789-1799 AD
Causes	The overthrow of the monarchy, the rise of nationalism, and social changes
Estates General	Convened in 1789 for the first time in 175 years
National Assembly	Formed by the Third Estate after being locked out
Storming of the Bastille	Symbolic event on July 14, 1789, marking rebellion
Reign of Terror	1793–1794, marked by mass executions under Robespierre
Execution of Louis XVI	January 21, 1793
Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte	1799, leading to the end of the Revolution
Impact	The overthrow of the monarchy, rise of nationalism, and social changes

Introduction

The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. The Revolution began with the storming of the Bastille prison on July 14, 1789, and ended with the accession of Napoleon Bonaparte as ruler of France in 1799. During this tumultuous period, French citizens rebelled against their monarchy and aristocracy, demanding liberty, equality, and fraternity. The French Revolution was a watershed event in modern European history that began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. During this period, French citizens leveled and reworked their country’s political landscape, uprooting centuries-old institutions such as absolute monarchy and the feudal system.

Causes of the French Revolution

The French Revolution did not break out suddenly. The leaders of the people repeatedly appealed to the ruler for justice, and when all efforts failed, revolution was inevitable. Now we can briefly discuss the causes of the French Revolution, which broke out in 1789 during the reign of Louis XVI.

(1) Bankruptcy of the French monarchy

Louis XIV left the French treasury on the brink of bankruptcy with his profligacy and wasteful wars. The financial situation worsened during the time of Louis XV. (1715-1774) and Louis XVI (1774-1792). Bankruptcy freed Louis XVI to tax the people more and borrow more. This made him very unpopular.

(2) Arbitrary Rule

The French monarchs ruled arbitrarily without the slightest regard for the rights and welfare of the people. They and the nobles wallowed in luxury: and did little for the good of their subjects. People had no hope of redressing their wrongs. The only way out seemed to be the path of revolution. People were arrested without adequate cause and kept in prison without a fair trial, freedom of religion was not granted, and the Huguenots were ill-treated: The people patiently and quietly watched the arbitrary ways of their kings. The press was strictly censored and hooks and papers critical of the government were burned. People not only suffered from poverty but also were denied basic freedoms.

(3) Injustice, inequality and exploitation

Injustice, inequality and exploitation prevailed. All people in France were not in the eyes of the law on a gaming basis. The nobles were highly privileged and lightly taxed. Common people were denied rights and heavily taxed. The nobles allied themselves with the king to exploit the people. Such a state of affairs could not continue continuously. But how could that position change? Were the king and the nobles ready to be just and fair to the people and reduce the burden of their misery? It was clear that there was no positive response from the government and the only hope lay in a violent revolution. A bad legacy of the medieval period in France was social inequality. The upper clergy and nobility owned most of the large estates and were very lightly taxed. They were privileged people who constantly abused their privileges and increased the suffering of the people. They treated the people with contempt, even though these people worked hard and bore the burden of high taxes. Farmers, artisans, merchants, lawyers, teachers and people of other professions were handicapped by the denial of social status and social justice. The higher clergy and nobility monopolized all that was good, but refused to have even a small share in the hardships of the people. A song about inequality, injustice and exploitation could not be sung forever. It had to be stopped once.

(4) Revolutions in England and America

The revolutions in England and America had a profound impact on the minds of the French people. England had a bloodless or glorious revolution in 1688 and America gained full independence in 1783 by staging a great revolution. If the British and Americans could put an end to arbitrary rule and injustice, why not the French?

(5) Thought provocations of great writers

The people of the middle class, the bourgeoisie, who were treated with contempt by the first two estates (clergy and nobility), were educated. They were deeply hurt because they were denied political, social and economic rights. Realizing their disability, people in the cities seethed with discontent. Their minds were provoked by great writers and philosophers. The most important writers who awakened the minds of the people in France were Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Thomas Paine.

(i) Montesquieu

Charles Montesquieu (1689-1775) emphasized the need for reorganization of society. If there was no social reconstruction. there could be no freedom and justice. In his famous writing of the Laws, he said that the British constitution was worth emulating because it was an excellent mixture of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. While in England people enjoyed rights and liberties, people in France suffered humiliation and oppression. Montesquieu loves people like the English. His unrelenting condemnation of the French monarchy awakened the minds of the people.

(ii) Voltaire

Francis Aronet Voltaire (1694–1778) was another great writer who had original ideas which he articulated boldly and clearly. We mercilessly attacked the tyrannical kings and members of the two estates in France. People fully agreed with him that the French people were suffering from ruthless tyranny, ridiculous inefficiency and cruel religious persecution. Like Erasmus, Voltaire launched ironic, satirical and sarcastic attacks on the idleness of the luxury-loving king and the equally idle clergy and nobility. Voltaire’s words carried great weight as he was a great thinker and a prolific writer with essays, dramatic biographies and poems to his credit. He was very influential and was friendly with Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II. Austrian and other European kings.

(iii) Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) had an influence that was more profound than that of any other philosopher and it was he who created a certain intellectual background for the French Revolution. Napoleon praised his greatness by saying that Rousseau’s ideas inspired the French revolutionaries and without Rousseau the revolution would not have been possible. Rousseau presented the theory of the social contract in his famous book The Social Contract. He made it very clear and sharp that kings would lose their right to rule if they neglected the welfare of the people. He was the first great philosopher to speak of the sovereignty of the people and the right of the people to rebel against tyrannical rule. According to Rousseau, the French people would not be wrong to rise up against their oppressive monarchy and overthrow it. Rousseau’s views were much clearer and stronger than those of the earlier thinker John Locke (1632–1704), who expressed similar views but in a milder form. But Locke did not advocate popular sovereignty as Rousseau later did. As readers worked their way through the social contract, they encountered the three magic words Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, which were to find a great place in the battle cry of the French revolutionaries.

(iv) Diderot

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) was a great French scholar, wrote novels, dramas, satire and criticism and was the editor-in-chief of the 17-volume Encyclopaedia. The first volume was published in 1751. It contained the stimulating ideas of Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau and other great contributors known as the Encyclopaedia. It was a rich fund of the latest knowledge which, if propagated, would surely undermine the foundations of a society based on injustice, inequality, exploitation and slavery. Its readers certainly felt the impact of revolutionary ideas.

(v) Thomas Paine

Thomas Paine (1737-1809), an English writer and radical political theorist who participated in the American Revolution, wrote the famous book The Rights of Man containing revolutionary ideas. This book had a wide circulation in England, but Paine was prosecuted by the British government for sedition and fled to France, where he participated in the French Revolution.

French Revolution Timeline

The Estates-General (which used to be the equivalent of the British Parliament) collapses when members of the Third Estate – which symbolizes “the people” – form their own National Assembly to campaign for constitutional reform. It was a great challenge to the king’s authority. and sparks a revolution. The timeline of the French Revolution is as follows:

(1) June 20, 1789

Collapse of the Estates-General

The Estates General collapsed when the members of the Third Estate – which were people from their own National Assembly. A challenge to royal authority and the French Revolution of 1789 had begun!

(2) July 14, 1789

Attack on the Bastille

The Estates-General collapse as Third Estate members of their own National Assembly campaign for constitutional reform.

(3) September 22, 1792

The French Republic is founded, a wave of revolutionary hysteria sweeps through Paris, leading to rebels storming the Bastille prison fortress, a symbol of royal authenticity.

(4) June 1793

Reign of Terror begins. This declared the abolition of the monarchy, and on January 21, 1793, the French Republican was established.

(5) 1795

The directory takes over

A new Directory regime came to power in France in 1795.

(6) November 9, 1799

The Napoleonic era begins

This is considered to be the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era.

The course of the Revolution

The French Revolution broke out in 1789 during the reign of Louis XVI (1774-1792). Louis XV correctly prophesied in his note After me the flood.

(1) Conditions in 1789

We can look at the conditions of the country on the eve of the French Revolution. The country was full of discontent from political, socio-economic and other causes. –

(i) Political situation

Louis XVI, the grandson of Louis XIV, had good intentions, no doubt he was mild and pious, but he was too young and foolish to bear the heavy burdens of royalty. He ascended the throne in 1774 at the age of 20, and fifteen years later the revolution broke out. He wanted to lead an easy, carefree life full of luxury and pleasure. He did not have a strong will and was easily influenced by the nobility. He had not read the writing on the wall and perhaps believed that he, his queen and his courtiers could merrily carry on in the old ways and that nothing was likely to happen to the monarchy when the writings of great thinkers appeared on it. The masses were heavily taxed, but Louis XVI was always in need. If he was fully successful in anything, it was in setting France firmly on the path to total financial bankruptcy. Louis XVI’s stupidity and recklessness were fully matched by his queen, Marie Antoinette, daughter of Marie Therese of Austria. She loved all the good things of life and enjoyed the gay court of Versailles. She was moody and asked the king to follow her ways. She had neither common sense nor compassion and understanding for the people who were burdened heavily by the government. She wasted public money like water and thwarted all efforts to balance the budget. So she was called Madame Deficit. Pride blinded her, and she offended the hungry people of France by advising them to eat cakes; bread was not available.

(ii) Economic Condition

The economic condition of the common people who belonged to the third estate was poor because after fulfilling their feudal obligations and paying religious tithes, taxes and tolls, they had very little left in their pockets. The clergy and nobility, who made up the first and second estates, were largely exempt from taxation. Forced labor was required for public works and charity work was demanded by landlords. The nobles had many privileges including the right for their pigeons and game to wander into the farmers’ fields and damage their crops. Ordinary people, worn out and emaciated, could get little rest for a lifetime with all their heavy burdens and cares.

(iii) Social Conditions

The people of France were divided into three estates. The first estate included the clergy, the healthy estate the nobles, and the third the common people. The whole church and did not come in the first estate. Only the higher clergy had all the comforts and luxuries of running and respect. The share of the common people did not have the privileges of the first estate. Members of the Third Estate were singled out for mistreatment, social degradation, and unlimited exploitation. They had no voice in the government and had to bear their hardships quietly and patiently. If they even had any Tights? we were to bear the burdens of the first two estates. A cartoon from 1789 depicts a poor peasant with a human load of a churchman and a nobleman.

(iv) Bankruptcy

Although Louis XIV. started his reign well and introduced good reforms, conditions did not improve as the reforms remained only on paper without actually being implemented. Turgot, who was appointed Minister of Finance, took effective steps to establish an economy and stabilize finances. Marie Antoinette, however, persuaded the king to release Turgot in 1776. From then on, financial conditions went from bad to worse, and the king continued to multiply his debts. The public debt grew so high that it was no longer possible to obtain loans. With France teetering dangerously on the brink of bankruptcy, the Queen pretends all is well, taking active steps to increase extravagance and waste.

Estates General Summoned

A precarious financial situation and a desire to avoid total financial collapse forced Louis XVI to convene the French Parliament known as the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles. This body was not convened by haughty, arrogant and arbitrary kings who raised taxes and spent public money without the consent of the Estates-General. The estates general had 1,200 members, 600 representing the first two and the remaining 600 the third estates and the remaining 600 the third estate. As already mentioned, the higher clergy and estates and representatives of the common people, farmers, lawyers, merchants, townspeople and members of the professions to the third estate. The members of the Third Estate were in an angry and aggressive mood, fully determined to force the king to introduce urgent reforms. Any wrong move by the king was likely to provoke them into rebellion.

Estates met separately

According to custom and tradition, the representatives of the three estates met separately and the decision of each estate was considered as one vote. Each time the first two estates had a majority because their interests were identical and opposed to those of the third estate.

Third Estate Demands

Members of the Third Estate were in no mood to remain subservient to the first two estates and vote according to the king’s wishes. They demanded that the three estates should form and meet as a single body representing the whole country. Instead of representing individual estates, the entire nation should be represented. They also wanted each member to have an individual voice. These demands were just and reasonable, but Louis XVI and the members of the first two estates rejected them because the common people would win. After that, members of the Third Estate felt suspicious of the king’s intentions. If these demands were not conceded, there was no hope of significant reforms for the benefit of the common people.

Abbé Sieyes’ proposal

Abbe Sieyes, a prominent leader of the Third Estate, proposed that the Third Estate be transformed into a National Assembly. This was too much for the king, who on June 20, 1789, sent soldiers to the door of the assembly hall of the Third Estate.

Meeting of the National Assembly on the tennis court

The members of the Third Estate felt deeply humiliated by the thoughtless action of the King, who had alienated their sympathy and support. However, members were undeterred and organized a neighborhood meeting at a site that had once been used as a tennis court. Here, on June 23, 1789, they took an important oath that was to change the course of French history. It was the famous tennis court oath expressing the determination of the members not to disperse until they had created a new constitution for France.

Joint meeting of the three estates

The king was then in great need of money, unable to suppress the new spirit of this third estate, he was forced to pocket his pride and order the first two estates to join the third estate in the National Assembly. By this time Mirabeau had established himself as a great leader of the Third Estate in the Diet.

Work of assembly hindered

The king hesitated but intrigued and was unable to take any wise decision. Like George III. of England firmly believed that if it should break out he could have his own way and an army to crush the popular insurrection. While the National Assembly continued its deliberations, rumors spread like wildfire that the king had kept his word and was considering recalling the assembly. A sense of deep frustration, disappointment, and anger gripped the members of the Third Estate in the Assembly. Everyone felt that Louis XVI could not be trusted because he and his queen had decided to crack down hard on the people.

Troop Movements and Unrest

People felt more suspicious and worried as troops began to move between Versailles and Paris. The King refused to withdraw troops which, it was feared, were likely to be used against the Assembly. Riots and lawlessness break out. Maddened mobs ransacked shops, assaulted officers, set fire to the mansions of the rich and title deeds, and began searching for weapons. The situation was spiraling out of control and the Earth seemed on the brink of revolution.

The outbreak of the revolution with the storming of the Bastille

The Bastille, a grim-looking French prison, was a symbol of a declining, oppressive, irresponsible and terribly unpopular monarchy. A mob, raging in a frenzy, stormed and razed the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Amazingly, there were only seven prisoners, who were now released. But weapons and ammunition were also stored in it. The Bastille was a fortress built in Paris in 1309. In later days it was converted into a prison and imprisoned famous men like Richelieu and Voltaire. The fall of the Bastille was a great event not only in French history, but also in the entire history of mankind. It signaled the beginning of a great revolution that shook France, ending the old and degenerate order and ushering in a new era of liberty, equality and fraternity. It was now clear that a determined nation had been roused to violent reaction against a tyrannical king who would not respond to reasonable appeals. Bastille Day is celebrated every year on July 14 as a major national day in France.

Revolutionary fever gripped the whole country

Revolutionary fever was not limited to Paris and Versailles. It spread everywhere and engulfed the entire nation. The higher echelon and nobility suffered greatly in the renewed violence, looting and arson. The floodgates were open and the crowd couldn’t contain their faces. Princes, courtiers and other powerful men took to their heels and sought refuge in foreign lands. Law and order completely broke down, government officials abandoned their posts, courts ceased to function and tax collection stopped, and anarchy spread as the machinery of government came to a standstill.

National Assembly Reforms

The impact of violence and bloodshed all around has been felt by the National Assembly. The nobles now panicked, and being anxious to restore peace, they thought fit to descend. With their approval, the National Assembly introduced revolutionary measures on August 4 and 3, 1789. These measures had the following effects: (i) Feudalism was abolished. All feudal privileges of the clergy and nobility were abolished. (ii) Equality was established among the citizens of France. (iii) Tithes and tolls were abolished. (iv) The principle of equal taxation was introduced, and the clergy and nobility were to be taxed like the common people. These changes were sudden, and what even capable ministers like Colbert and Turgot had failed to do for centuries, the National Assembly did overnight.

The march of the royal family to Paris

Although Louis XVI approved the measures adopted by the National Assembly on 4 and 5 August, in 1789 people doubted the seriousness of the king to introduce radical measures. Their adults confirmed when rumors spread in Paris that the king was planning to undo what the National Assembly and the revolutionaries had done. On October 1, 1789, people heard that soldiers were enjoying themselves at Versailles while people in Paris were starving. Therefore, on October 5, a procession of angry and hungry women and men disguised as women marched to Versailles with sticks and clubs in their hands, crying for bread. The next day, an unruly mob attacked the royal palace and murdered several soldiers and palace servants. The crowd refused to disperse until the royal family agreed to accompany them to Paris. In the Tuileries Palace, the royal family was practically imprisoned. Eventually, the king relented, and the crowd returned to Paris with the king, queen, and prince screaming. We have a baker, a baker’s wife, and a little cook; now we will have bread. Even at this stage, Louis XVI could have prevented further degeneration of the state, but he decided on more serious mistakes that ultimately cost him the throne and his life.

Administrative Arrangements and Constitution-Making

The National Assembly, which shifted its headquarters to pairs, continued its important work of introducing radical changes in the country. It transformed itself into the Constituent Assembly, taking on the great task of drafting a new constitution for France.

(i) Administrative Actions

The National Assembly took immediate administrative action to solve the new problems facing the country in light of new ideas and plans. Administrative units have been changed. Their borders were redrawn so that they were all built more or less on the basis of equality with respect to size and population. Power was decentralized, and the country was divided into 83 departments. Papal control over the church was removed, and the church was nationalized. Church property was confiscated, and the number of parishioners was reduced. Paper currency was introduced, and church property supported this currency. Unfortunately, the property could not fully cover the banknotes, which were issued in large quantities. This led to inflation that took on Frankenstein’s proportions.

(ii) Constitution-making

The most important achievement of the National Assembly (which, as noted earlier, morphed into the Constituent Assembly) was the framework for a new constitution in 1791 that completely changed the structure of government and the status of the individual.

(iii) Constitutional Monarchy

The absolute and irresponsible monarchy was converted into a constitutional or limited monarchy. The monarchy was hereditary. Ministers were to be appointed by the king, but he had no power to appoint members of the legislature. The king was granted a suspensive veto, the power to delay the implementation of a measure passed by the legislature. This was clear evidence that the king still commanded respect and sympathy and that the revolutionary framers had no thought of unceremoniously abolishing the monarchy at that stage. The king had only himself to blame if the revolutionaries later took extreme steps, one of which was to get rid of the monarchy altogether and eventually execute the king and queen.

(iv) Unicameral Legislature

The Legislature (Unicameral Legislature) was to have 745 members indirectly elected for two years by all active citizens on the basis of a high property franchise. It was to effectively control every branch of government.

(v) Elected Judges

A system of election of all judges and trial by jury in criminal cases was introduced.

(vi) Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

An important feature of the French Constitution of 1791 was a preamble with 17 articles containing a grand declaration of rights inspired by a great philosopher of the time. This was known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. This can be considered a great contribution of the National Assembly. Like the British who gave the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights, and the Americans who gave the American Bill of Rights, the French gave this great document. To all who value freedom and honor democracy, this document is written in golden letters. Its immense importance must be observed. He created an entirely new political system. France by the exact determination of human rights and liberties and the limitations of royal power.

It clearly and unequivocally supported the three democratic principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which deeply influenced other democratic constitutions of the world.

It guaranteed freedom of person and property, freedom of speech and writing, freedom to profess religious beliefs and freedom to express political opinions. It guaranteed the principle of equality by introducing the equality of all citizens before the law and the principle of equal eligibility of all citizens for public office. Law was not supposed to be arbitrary. It was supposed to be an expression Thus popular sovereignty was observed; laws were to be created either personally by the citizens or by their representatives.

Election of a new assembly

As per the provisions of the new constitution, a new assembly known as the Legislative Assembly was elected. The French Revolution seemed to have taken adequate steps to allow the country to continue in peace. But unfortunately, it was not to be.

The new constitution is unpopular

The new constitution satisfied the hopes of a relatively small number of people. Different sections of the population were dissatisfied with the new constitution for various reasons, and it was bound to fail. The royalists were unwilling to support this, as the king’s wings of power were drastically clipped. The clergy were angry because papal control was overthrown, church property was confiscated, and clergy privileges were abolished. The nobles were angry because they found the radical changes intolerable. Many revolutionaries felt that the Constitution did not go far enough and was totally inadequate as it failed to introduce radical reforms. The king and queen were very displeased and began to hatch new plots to revive the old order and suppress the revolutionary forces.

The King’s Foolish Attempt to Escape

A dramatic development that occurred was the King’s foolish attempt to flee the Tuileries Palace on 20 June 1791 to join his loyalist army on the country’s northern border. The king should have avoided such a hasty step and should have made some sort of compromise with the leaders of the revolution. Common sense, at least, should have made him realize that he must live in his own country and rule among men, and in his own interest, he should not have made enemies of the whole nation. Nothing was more damaging to the monarchy than the failed royal escape attempt, which alienated even the support and sympathy of the country’s moderates. It was clear that Louis XVI was trying to secure the support of the French nobles who had fled abroad and King Leopold II of Austria, the brother of Marie Antoinette, and other kings. The country was clearly under threat of a foreign invasion. The king was apparently under an evil star, as the royal family in disguise were discovered and caught in the border village of Varennes. The family, now standing completely exposed as anti-humans, were taken back to Paris. Louis XVI was blind to the fact that the whole country, except the aristocrats of the old order, was against him.

Constituent Assembly Dissolved

Suffering further humiliation after being caught in the act, to save the skin of his teeth, the King took an oath to uphold the Constitution. The National Assembly, having completed its task of constitution-making, dissolved itself on September 30, 1791.

Declaration of war on Austria and Prussia

When the revolutionaries heard that Louis expected help from Leopold II. of Austria, who turned to various countries for military help, anger and alarm reigned in the country. The King of Prussia also wanted to intervene. These kings wished that the revolutionary forces should be localized in France itself and should not be allowed to spread their tentacles to other countries. As the King of Austria declared his intention to invade to defeat the revolutionaries, the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia on April 20, 1792.

Extremists seize leadership

Extremist elements among the revolutionaries who have now seized leadership have taken full advantage of the threat of alien vision and all kinds of wild rumors. Extremists have created an evolutionary Jacobin. Clubs that wanted the abolition of the monarchy, the removal of the ownership franchise, and several other drastic measures, France was now preparing for a new scene on the stage. It was a pity that the revolutionaries abandoned moderation and indulged in horrible atrocities. On August 10, 1792, frenzied mobs stormed the Tuileries Palace and imprisoned the entire royal family. On September 20, 1792, the French army defeated Prussian, Austrian, and about 2 royalist troops that attacked. The fear that the presence of the king was dangerous to the country and the threat, both potential and actual, of a foreign invasion suddenly changed the course of the revolution.

Massacres and Deposition of the King

Radicals formed a National Convention to draft a new constitution, which was prepared in 1793. This constitution could not be put into effect due to unexpected and rapid developments. Meanwhile, on September 2 and 3, 1792, radicals killed hundreds of men and women in the streets because they were suspected of being royalists or counter-revolutionaries. The king was deposed and on September 23, 1972, France was declared a republic.

Execution of Louis XVI

Maximilian Robespierre, Danton, and other leading radicals in the National Assembly condemned Louis XVI to death on charges of high treason. His head was cut off on January 21, 1793, by a mechanical device invented by the physician Joseph Ignace Guillotine (1788–1844). The device, known in its own right as a guillotine, consists of two upright posts between which an inclined knife works. Once released, the knife falls and immediately cuts off the convict’s head. Mary Antoinette was executed by guillotine in October 1798. The quick action of the guillotine causes less pain to the victim than the axe. It is still used in France and Belgium to execute criminals.

Reign of Terror

(1) A Committee of Public Safety consisting of 12 members was authorized by the National Assembly to take all necessary executive measures to deal with the dangerous situation that had arisen. The nations of Europe formed a coalition and declared war on France after the execution of Louis XVI. In the meantime, rebellions broke out in many cities against the radicals. The committee has taken drastic steps to deal with the dangers inside and outside the country. At home, she unleashed a ten-month reign of terror (September 1793 to July 1794), in which all those considered enemies of the revolution were executed by guillotine. Every life seemed to be at risk as even the slightest criticism of the committee’s excesses was considered a capital crime. Among those who fell victim to the guillotine were those who had a real interest in the establishment of peace and the exercise of temperance. An estimated 2,500 people were beheaded in Paris and nearly 10,000 in other parts of the country.

(2) Notable persons executed included Danton himself (an eminent leader of the Revolution and a member of the former Committee of Public Safety), Marie Antoinette, and Madame Roland. The tremendous reign of terror ended only when Robespierre himself, who had instigated the use of the guillotine and presided over the deaths of thousands, was guillotined. By a strange coincidence, he was executed in 1794, in the month of July (in which the Bastille fell). Robespierre, a bloodthirsty dictator, became very unpopular and revolted against him. His execution ended the reign of terror.

(3) The Committee of Public Safety dealt effectively with the danger of a draw by foreign powers. It introduced compulsory military service for people aged 18 to 25. She managed to destroy the coalition against France consisting of England, Holland, Spain, Sardinia, Austria, and Prussia. The credit for great victories against foreign armies and for the annexation of territories in Holland and West Germany belonged to the military commander Carnot. Excited by the victory, France declared war on England in 3793.

(4) The New Constitution of 1795: After the Reign of Terror ended, the National Convention proposed a new constitution for France known as the Constitution of the Third Year (1795). This constitution operated for about four years (1795–1799). It established a bicameral legislature and eight committees of five directors (known as the Directory) who hold executive power. While the Committee of Public Safety overreached and spilled blood, the Directory was too weak to function properly.

The Role of Women in the French Revolution

Women had no political freedoms in pre-revolutionary France; they could not vote or hold any political office. They were considered “outlying” residents who were forced to rely on men to find out what was best for them in public authority. It was they who characterized these classifications, and ladies had to acknowledge male control in the political circle. The ladies were instructed to focus on their wives and “every inclination of him…consideration and care…an earnest and careful zeal for his salvation”. A woman’s school often consisted of figuring out how to be a decent partner and mother; therefore, ladies should not be associated with the political circle, as the limitation of their influence was the education of the future inhabitants. Probably the best impact on predicting progressive and conservative changes in women’s occupations was Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s instructive Emile (1762). More about the role of women in the French Revolution

The nature of the French Revolution

The nature of the French Revolution is as follows:

(1) Violence and lack of statehood

The French Revolution took a very violent turn due to the obstinacy of the king, the selfishness of the nobles, and the threat of foreign invasion. The king and queen, a large number of nobles, and people suspected of being against it The revolutionaries perished. Many fell victim to the guillotine, and many died in the street or elsewhere. Many lives have been needlessly sacrificed without doing anyone any good. Horrible excesses have been committed in the name of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Reign of Terror (1793–1794) created more problems than it solved and brought resentment and disgust to right-thinking people. The revolutionaries who established a reign of terror have defeated the healthy spirit of true revolution (as opposed to committing crimes and murders) and have shown a woeful lack of constructive thinking and statesmanship.

(2) Anarchy

The people of France had to pay an unexpected and unusually high price for the tragic events, especially after the king tried to escape. Instead of the real liberty, equality, and fraternity that had taken deep root in French soil, anarchy had set in, and no constitution, however good it might be, could receive a fair trial. The country was rapidly changing from one institution to another. The first constitution had commendable features, but unfortunately, circumstances took a tragic turn for the proper implementation of its provisions. Eventually, Napoleon seized power and ruled France in a dictatorial manner, all in the name of the French Revolution.

(3) Lack of experience

A contrast can be noted between England and France. The English middle classes had gathered much experience over the centuries and displayed a sense of moderation and truly constructive statesmanship. The French middle class did not have the necessary opportunities to gain as much experience as their counterparts in Britain. In America, the Revolutionary War leaders also had plenty of political and constitutional experience in managing their own political institutions before the rift between England and the colonies: the British had achieved success in the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and moved from success to success in a parliamentary democracy. They did not like having all the rights and freedoms at once but in small doses. Therefore, the British could from time to time, consolidate what they had gained earlier. In America, great leaders like George Washington did not introduce full democracy at once because they were realistic and knew the pitfalls of a nascent democracy.

(4) Bad leadership

England and America had leaders of great character, foresight, wisdom, and moderation. They were able to guide people correctly and ultimately lead them to victory. The French, relatively speaking, did not have very good leaders of the caliber of George Washington and were unable to control the revolutionaries and keep them on a leash. Thousands died in France as anarchy ensued and no leader could prevent a reign of terror. Instead of constructive statesmanship, violence prevailed, and eventually, the country found itself under the heavy heel of Napoleon. In the later stages, the revolutionaries lost what they had initially gained.

(5) Bourgeois Revolution

The French Revolution started as a bourgeois movement, but later power fell into the hands of bloodthirsty extremists. Although it was a bloody revolution, it was a contrast to the Russian Revolution of 1917, which was orchestrated by communist leaders.

(6) Revolutionary France, Enemy of Europe

Revolutionary France committed aggression against other countries under the leadership of Napoleon. He led France to a goal that was different from what the leaders originally had in mind when the first constitution was written.

The significance of the French Revolution and its consequences

The French Revolution is one of the greatest milestones in world history. The great effects of the revolution highlight its enormous importance.

(1) He changed the course of history

He changed the course of the history of France and inspired the nations of other countries to change the course of their history. In France, the conditions after the revolution were completely different from before it. The whole attitude of the people towards the government underwent a great change during the reign.

(2) Destruction of the old order

It destroyed the old order in which the upper clergy and nobility had only privileges and rights, and the common people were cruelly exploited and denied rights. First, the revolutionaries introduced a limited monarchy, but when they discovered that Louis XVI and his queen were scheming and planning mischief, they put an end to the monarchy and executed the royal couple. The country began to have new constitutions based on revolutionary principles. Between 1791 and 1799, France had three constitutions. In all these constitutions, the principles of & new social order were proposed. The old order,r in which people were kept down and treated cruelly is over. Instead of an arbitrary government, there was to be a government according to a written constitution. The fall of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, is a Red Letter Day for France and is a public holiday.

(3) Inspiration for other countries

Like the people of England who staged the Glorious Revolution (1688) and the people of America who waged the War of Independence (1776–1783), the French revolutionaries (1789) inspired the exploited and oppressed masses of people in other countries. During 1800–1825, several revolutions took place in Latin American countries. In the 19th century, many small revolutions took place in Europe based on the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity given by the French Revolution. In Oriental countries, there was a new awakening among the oppressed millions. In their struggle against British imperialism, Indian nationalists often invoked the glorious achievements of the French Revolution. Its importance as a major event in the world cannot be overemphasized.

(4) Declaration of the Rights of Man

Among the documents drafted by the French revolutionaries, the Declaration of the Rights of Man was the most important. Every democratic country today refers to this landmark document, which clearly states that an individual has certain fundamental rights that are inalienable and must not be violated. In the Constitution of India (1950), the list of fundamental rights is in the spirit of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. In France, the individual has secured a status with fundamental rights attached to it.

(5) Nationalism

The French Revolution created a national awakening and laid the foundations of democracy. Originally held as a country of three estates represented separately in the Estates-General, France became a nation collectively represented in the National Assembly. The nation’s leaders drew up a constitution in 1791 in which a limited monarchy was established and the rights of the people were clearly spelled out in black and white. Later in 1792, a republican constitution was created. Another constitution was created in 1795.

(6) Democracy

Although Napoleon exercised a power that was more absolute than that of Louis XVI, he claimed to express nationalism and democracy. Wherever Napoleon’s army went, it said that its main objective was to liberate the people from the old order. In the Napoleonic era, two powerful forces that manifested themselves in almost every European country were nationalism and democracy.

Evil Effects of the French Revolution

A study of the effects of the French Revolution will be incomplete if reference is not made to the evil effects of the French Revolution.

(i) Every revolution takes a heavy toll on human life and property. In the case of the French Revolution, however, the tax was greater than the results warranted. Mention may be made here of the reign of terror, during which many crimes were committed in the name of freedom.

(ii) The revolution took an undesirable turn, and, as observed before, its course in later days was directed rather by those who loved power than by those who had and really desired to defend rights and liberties.

(iii) The revolution created anarchy, which was conducive to the rise of Napoleon, who cloaked his desire for power under the mantle of revolutionary ideals. It was strange to see France, which had overthrown the absolute monarchy, suffer under Napoleon’s heavy boot

Conclusion

The French Revolution was a time of great social and political upheaval in France. It began in 1789 with the storming of the Bastille and ended in 1799 with the accession of Napoleon Bonaparte. During this time, many changes occurred in French society, including the abolition of feudalism, the establishment of a republic, and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. In addition to these political changes, many social and cultural transformations occurred as a result of the revolution. For example, art and literature became more secular and realistic, while fashion changed to reflect the new democratic values. Although not all aspects of the revolution were positive, it was ultimately a watershed event that transformed France into a modern nation. The revolution unified France and strengthened the power of the nation-state. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars tore down the ancient fabric of Europe, accelerated the rise of nationalism, and ushered in the era of modern total warfare.

(FAQ) Questions and Answers about The French Revolution