Rise of Napoleon

provides a snapshot of the rise of Napoleon, a pivotal period in history marked by the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This overview traces the transformative impact of Napoleon’s rise to power, from his military prowess and strategic genius to the introduction of the Napoleonic Code. It delves into his conquests across Europe, the reforms he enacted, and the lasting legacy of his reign. The Rise of Napoleon is a compelling story of the ambitions, military triumphs, and political maneuvering that shaped not only France but also left an indelible mark on the course of European history.

Rise of Napoleon

Historical events	Rise of Napoleon
1799	Napoleon seizes power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire
1804	Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of the French
1805	Wins the Battle of Austerlitz against Russia and Austria
1806	Establishes the Confederation of the Rhine
1808	Begins the Peninsular War in Spain
1809	Defeats Austria at the Battle of Wagram
1812	Napoleon died in exile in Saint Helena
1814	Abdicates and is exiled to Elba
1815	Escapes from Elba returns for the Hundred Days
1815	Defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, she was exiled to Saint Helena
1821	Napoleon died in exile on Saint Helena

Introduction

No other personality has left a lasting impression on the history of Europe in general and France in particular like Napoleon Bonaparte. He was one of the greatest military generals the world has produced. He mastered his age. He was a man of enormous energy, self-confidence, and resourcefulness. His rise to power is one of the most interesting chapters in the history of France. After taking command of the French Revolution armies, he seized political power as first consul in 1799 and proclaimed himself emperor in 1804. With repeated victories over various European coalitions, he extended French rule over much of Europe.

Early Life of Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica on August 15, 1769, a year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. Napoleon was therefore a French citizen from his birth. The family, formerly known as Bonaparte, was a minor Italian nobility descended from a Tuscan stock of Lombard origin. The family moved to Florence and later split into two branches; the original, Bonaparte-Sarzana, was forced to leave Florence. In the sixteenth century, this family moved to Corsica, when the island was the property of the Republic of Genoa.

Napoleon’s father was Carlo (Charles) Bonaparte. He was a lawyer, and in 1778 he was nominated as the representative of Corsica at the court of Louis XVI, where he remained for many years. Napoleon’s mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino, was a dominant influence on Napoleon’s childhood. Her firm discipline helped him later in his life. Napoleon was the second in a family of eight children of Carlo Bonaparte (Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline, and Jerome).

Napoleon’s noble, moderately wealthy background and family connections afforded him greater opportunities for study than were available to the typical Corsican of the time. As one of a large family, he was destined for a military career from time immemorial. On May 15, 1779, at the age of nine, Napoleon was admitted to the French military school at Brienne. After graduating from Brienne in 1784, Napoleon was admitted to the elite École Royale Militaire in Paris, where he completed the two-year course in one year. He developed reading habits and became a diligent student, especially in history and geography.

Early military career

Napoleon graduated in September 1785 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment. He started a new military assignment in January 1786 at the age of sixteen. He served in garrison duty at Valence and Auxonne until the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. During this period, however, he took nearly two years’ leave in Corsica and Paris. He spent most of the following years in Corsica, where a complex three-way struggle between royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists took place. Napoleon and his family were forced to flee to France in June 1793 after falling out with Pascal Paoli, the venerable patriotic leader of the Corsicans who was increasingly conservative. After this, Napoleon completely identified with his adopted country and became an ardent patriot and supporter of the Jacobins. He took sides in favor of the Jacobins at the height of the civil war between the Girondins and the Jacobins.

With the help of a Corsican named Saliceti, Napoleon was appointed commander of artillery in the French forces besieging Toulon, which had risen in rebellion against the republican government and was occupied by British troops. He formulated a successful plan that forced the British to evacuate. In a successful military attack, the city of Toulon was recaptured (December 1793). Napoleon was wounded in the thigh during a military operation. Napoleon’s military success earned him a promotion to brigadier general. His actions brought him to the attention of the Committee of Public Safety and he became a close associate of Augustine Robespierre, the younger brother of the revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre. For the next two years, the fate of Napoleon changed. After the fall of the Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre, Napoleon was arrested and briefly imprisoned in August 1794, but was released within two weeks.

In 1795, Napoleon was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organized an armed protest against the National Assembly on 3 October 1795. Napoleon was given command of the improvised forces defending the National Assembly at the Tuileries Palace. He seized the cannons with the help of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, who later became his brother-in-law. Napoleon used artillery the next day to repel the Royalist attackers, thus saving the National Assembly. This action brought Napoleon sudden fame, fortune and the patronage of the new Directory, especially its leader Barras. Within weeks he was romantically attached to Barry’s former lover, Josephine de Beauharnais, whom he married on 9 March 1796.

The Italian Campaign of 1796-97

The newly established French Republic, although driving the greater number of its enemies from the field, was still left at war with England and Austria. After a series of failures to defeat the French on land, the British abandoned their plan. However, British control of the sea was a constant threat to the colonies and possessions of France, and indirectly a great help to Austria. The Director, as the new French government was called, was heading for the very center of Austrian power, which they hoped would bring them victory and peace. With this objective, the main French armies were to advance to Vienna, the capital of Austria. At the same time, another army was to support the main attack and divert part of the Austrian army by attacking Austrian power and possessions in Italy. It was this subordinate attack that was entrusted to Napoleon. It was this Italian campaign that won him undying military fame and glory.

Within days of his marriage to Josephine, Napoleon took command of the French ‘Army of Italy’ on 27 March 1796 and embarked on a successful invasion of Italy. The Italian campaign demonstrated his courage, speed of decision and action, and at the same time the certainty with which he could distinguish between what was possible and what was not. While crossing the Italian Alps, Napoleon was confronted by a joint army of Sardinians and Austrians. However, Napoleon managed to separate them and defeated the Sardinians at the Battle of Mondovi, forcing them to accept the Armistice of Cherasco (April 28, 1796). With this armistice, Sardinia withdrew from the war and ceded Savoy and Nice to France.

After his great victory over Sardinia, Napoleon marched on Milan with the aim of not only capturing the city but also isolating the Austrians from the Sardinians. His first major battle was fought at Lodi on May 10, 1796. It was a great victory and the Austrians retreated far east of Milan. In Lodi, he earned the nickname “Little Corporal”, a term that reflected his intimate relationship with the soldiers, many of whom he knew by name.

Napoleon easily conquered Milan. He entered Milan amid enormous public enthusiasm. At first he seemed no conqueror but a liberator. Napoleon then besieged the great fortress of Mantua, the central Austrian stronghold in Italy. It was heavily defended by artillery and surrounded for the most part by impassable lakes and swamps. It was clear that the fall of Mantua would mean the fall of Austrian power in Italy. Napoleon managed to defeat the Austrians in several engagements. The last and decisive blow was struck by the Austrians on January 14, 1797, when the Austrian army of seventy thousand men was scattered in the battle of Rivoli and the Austrians surrendered Mantua to Napoleon.

Despite these military victories against the Austrians in Italy, Napoleon was still unable to force the Austrians to conclude a peace agreement with the French. The Austrians were unwilling to accept defeat. They watched events in Paris and hoped for a royalist revolution. However, they were disappointed in their hopes. To force the Austrians to sue for peace, Napoleon decided to push through northeastern Italy and reached the town of Laibach.

As the French armies under Napoleon advanced towards Vienna on the Danube and from the eastern Adriatic, Austria agreed to a definitive peace agreement with France, leading to the signing of the Peace of Campo Formio on 17 October 1797. The Peace of Campo Formio contained both open and secret articles . By open articles the Belgian lands were ceded by Austria to France; a republic called the Cisalpine Republic was established in northern Italy; France was to take the Ionian Islands; Austria was to be allowed to hold Venice and all its territory in Italy and the Adriatic.

In addition to these open articles, there were also secret ones. By these secret articles the Austrian emperor promised to cede to France large districts on the left bank of the Rhine. France also promised that Austria should receive the important ecclesiastical country of Salzburg and part of Bavaria; and she promised that Prussia, the hated rival of Austria, would receive no compensation in the settlement of Germany. The Peace of Campo Formio demonstrated Napoleon’s diplomatic skills along with his military victories.

Napoleon continued his Italian campaign and defeated the army of the Papal States. The Papal States had to pay the price of defeat, but Napoleon tried to leave the way open for the restoration of friendly relations with the Pope. With the Peace of Tolentine (February 1797), the Pope ceded Avignon to France and Bologna, Ferrara and Romagna to the Cisalpine Republic. He handed over money, manuscripts and paintings to Napoleon. However, the Directory would like even tougher conditions imposed by Pope Pius VI. including his dethronement when he protested the execution of Louis XVI The Pope was grateful to Napoleon for his escape from further humiliation. The next year, however, General Berthier captured Rome and captured Pope Pius VI. The Pope died of disease in captivity. Napoleon then marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending more than 1,000 years of independence.

Napoleon’s success in Italy resulted in territorial gains for France. French borders extended to the Rhine, the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) was annexed, and a vassal republic (Cisalpine) was created in northern Italy that was French territory in all but name. In addition to the territorial advantages, France also gained a lot of money from the Italian campaign. Napoleon demanded reparations from the defeated Italian princes. The Pope had to pay twenty million francs, the Republic of Genoa fifteen. millions and the Duke of Modena ten millions. He also got a lot of money from Milan. Napoleon was thus able to send a lot of money to France after paying the expenses of the army.

Napoleon’s remarkable series of military triumphs was the result of his ability to apply his encyclopedic knowledge of conventional military thought to real-world situations, as evidenced by his creative use of artillery tactics as he used them as a mobile force to support his infantry. He was also a master of intelligence and deception and had a great sense of knowing when to strike. He often won battles by concentrating his forces on an unsuspecting enemy, using spies to gather information about enemy forces, and concealing the deployment of his own troops. In the Italian campaign, often considered his greatest, Napoleon’s army captured 160,000 prisoners, 2,000 cannons and 170 standards. The campaign year saw major departures from the traditional norms of eighteenth-century warfare and marked a new era in military history.

Egyptian Expedition of 1798-99

Thanks to his military success in Italy, Napoleon’s reputation in France increased and his name became a household name. In 1797, after Austria accepted the Dictated Peace, England was the only country left at war with France. The Directory decided to wage war against England and appointed Napoleon as general of the army which was intended to invade England. In early 1798, Napoleon surveyed the coast and concluded that it was impossible to cross the English Channel due to British naval supremacy. But he imagined that as the British Empire was extended in various parts of the world, a blow might be given to it by an attack on some other part of the British Empire. Under these circumstances, Napoleon decided to undertake an Egyptian expedition to attack the British in Egypt. Napoleon also dreamed of advancing into India to drive out the British with the help of the Marathas and Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore.

In March 1798, Napoleon proposed to the Directory a military expedition to seize Egypt, then a province of the Ottoman Empire, in an attempt to protect French commercial interests and undermine Britain’s access to India. The Directory, although apprehensive about the scale and cost of the expedition, readily agreed to the plan to remove the popular general from the center of power. The instructions given by the Directory to Napoleon when he was sent to Egypt included as the first point “to expel the English from all their possessions in the East as far as they can reach.” Other instructions included: the Isthmus of Suez was to be cut; the condition of the natives was to be improved; and peace was to be kept with the Turkish Sultan.

In May 1798, Napoleon sailed from Toulon with a fleet and an army. An unusual aspect of the Egyptian expedition was the involvement of a large group of scientists and Egyptologists to shed light on the monuments and antiquities of the then little-known country. One of their significant discoveries was the discovery of the Rosetta Plate, which helped decipher hieroglyphs. This deployment of intellectual resources is seen by some as a manifestation of Napoleon’s commitment to the principles of the Enlightenment and by others as a masterstroke of propaganda that concealed the true imperialist motives of the invasion. In a very unsuccessful effort to gain the support of the Egyptian people, Bonaparte also issued a statement in which he lashed out at the people’s liberators from Ottoman oppression and praised the principles of Islam.

On the way to Egypt, Napoleon’s expeditionary forces captured the island of Malta on June 11, 1798. Further progress Napoleon reached the coast of Egypt on July 1, 1798, and six days later began his march to Cairo. He tried to pacify the indigenous population, but the Mamluks fought for their power. On July 21, 1798, in a battle within sight of the pyramids, the Mamluks were soundly defeated in the so-called Battle of the Pyramids, and Napoleon became ruler of Egypt. While the battle on land was a decisive French victory, the British Royal Navy was able to compensate at sea. The ships that landed Napoleon and his army sailed back to France, but the fleet of ships that came with them remained to support the army along the coast. On August 1, 1798, a British fleet under Horatio Nelson engaged the French in the Battle of the Nile, capturing or destroying all but two of the French vessels. With Napoleon away from the coast, his aim of strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean was thwarted, but his army still managed to consolidate power in Egypt, despite facing repeated rebellions.

In early 1799, Napoleon led an army into the Ottoman province of Syria, now modern Israel and Syria, and defeated the outnumbered Ottoman forces in several battles. However, his army was weakened by disease, mostly bubonic plague, and poor supplies. Napoleon led 13,000 French troops to capture the coastal cities of Al Arish and Jaffa. In Jaffa, the killing of prisoners and brutality against the inhabitants did much to damage Napoleon’s reputation. After his army was weakened by the plague, Napoleon was unable to reduce the fortress of Acre and was forced to return to Egypt in May 1799. He was still strong enough to destroy the Turkish army that had been sent to Egypt.

While in Egypt, Bonaparte tried to keep a close eye on European affairs, relying mainly on newspapers and news from France. As the Egyptian campaign stagnated, knowledge of the political instability developing in France and the news of the formation of a second coalition against France prompted Napoleon to leave Egypt. He sailed from Alexandria on August 23, 1799, and after being in great danger of capture by the British, arrived in France on October 9, 1799. Napoleon left the army in Egypt under the command of Kleber, who was later assassinated in June 1800. the French army could no longer resist the triple attack of the Turks and the British, 20,000 French soldiers surrendered at Cairo and Alexandria in August 1801. Although Napoleon was later accused of deserting his troops, his departure from Egypt was ordered by the Directory, which had suffered a series of military defeats against the forces of the Second Coalition and feared an invasion.

Coup d’état 19 Brumaire (November 10, 1799)

By the time Napoleon returned to Paris in October 1799, the military situation had improved with several French victories. However, the government was bankrupt and the Directory was corrupt and ineffective. It was totally unpopular with the people. The land was restless and ready to appreciate anyone who would give them honor and safety.

Napoleon was approached by one of the directors, Sieyès, seeking his support for a coup to overthrow the constitution. The plot involved Bonaparte’s brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another director, and Talleyrand. On 9 November 1799 (18 Brumaire) and the following day (19 Brumaire), troops led by Napoleon seized control of the council, which was meeting in the palace of St. Cloud outside Paris. Most of the legislators, seeing the soldiers and fearing for their lives, fled. The rear of those who remained voted to revise the constitution and appointed three provisional consuls to carry it out. These three consuls were: Napoleon, Sieyes and Ducos. The three consuls pledged “fidelity to the Republic, to liberty, equality, and a representative system of government.” By early November 11, 1799, Napoleon was back in Paris and the coup d’état was over. Paris and France took it with surprising calm. There was no sympathy with councils or directors, and France was ready for a new experiment.

Napoleon as First Consul

Although Sieyes expected to dominate the new regime, he was overpowered by Napoleon, who drew up the Constitution of Year VIII and secured his election as First Consul. This made him the most powerful person in France, a power that was strengthened by the constitution of the year X, which declared him the first consul for life. During his consulship (1799–1804), Napoleon introduced several lasting reforms, including centralized administration, higher education, the tax system, a central bank, laws, and road and sewer systems. He negotiated an 1801 concordat with the Catholic Church and tried to reconcile the predominantly Catholic population with his regime. His set of civil laws, the Napoleonic or Civil Code, is still relevant in many countries today. The Code was prepared by committees of legal experts.

War against the Second Coalition

The Second Coalition of Powers against France, comprising England, Austria, Russia, Turkey, Portugal, and Naples, was formed in 1798. It aimed to crush the revolutionary government in France and limit France to its old land. border. Prussia stayed out of the second coalition. The coalition was formed while Napoleon was away in Egypt. The war against the Second Coalition began when Austria refused to expel Russian troops from its territory at the request of France.

At first, the situation was favorable for the Allies. The French army was defeated and driven across the Rhine. A combined Austro-Russian army defeated French forces in two major battles. However, the year 1799 ended very badly for the Allies. The French managed to regain their position. The English were defeated and forced to evacuate the Netherlands (Holland). France was saved from the humiliation of defeat and foreign occupation.

The arrival of Napoleon on the scene was a source of great anxiety for the Allies. Russia withdrew from the coalition because Czar Paul was very dissatisfied with both England and Austria. While his goal was to revive the ancien régime in Europe by crushing revolutionary France, Austria was more interested in acquiring Piedmont. Austria’s behavior angered the Czar. He was also angry with the English because they supported Austrian policies. In addition, the Tsar developed a great admiration for Napoleon and subsequently withdrew from the second coalition. This left Napoleon free to deal with Austria and England.

Napoleon planned a double attack against Austria. While Moreau was to lead an army across the Rhine into the Danube valley to attack Vienna, Napoleon was to lead an army into Italy through the passes of Switzerland. In 1800, Napoleon returned to Italy, which the Austrians had recaptured during his absence in Egypt. French troops under Napoleon’s command crossed the Alps in the spring. While the campaign got off to a bad start, the Austrians were eventually defeated at Marengo in June 1800, leading to an armistice. Napoleon’s brother Joseph, who led the peace negotiations at Lunéville, reported that, due to British support for Austria, Austria would not recognize the newly acquired territories of France. As negotiations became more and more complicated, Napoleon ordered his general Moreau to strike Austria once more. Moreau led France to victory at Hohenlinden. As a result, the Treaty of Lunéville was signed in February 1801, under which French gains from the Treaty of Campo Formio were reaffirmed and increased.

After the collapse of the second coalition, France remained at war only with England. England and France were at war continuously for nine years. In the course of this war, England defeated the French navy and captured many colonies of France and its allies or dependencies, Holland and Spain. However, England found itself in financial difficulties, and its debt grew enormously, A distaste for war spread among the British.

A change of government in England paved the way for peace between the two countries. With the collapse of William Pitt’s ministry, the new government, led by Addington, began to perceive peace overtures from Napoleon. The English wanted peace to regain the European markets that the French had closed to them. On the other hand, Napoleon sought peace to complete his reform program in France and consolidate his position in Europe.

After lengthy negotiations, the British signed the Treaty of Amiens with France in March 1802, which set the terms for peace. In the Treaty of Amiens, England recognized the existence of the French Republic. England also agreed to withdraw its troops from several French and some Dutch and Spanish colonies. However, England retained Ceylon (Netherlands) and Trinidad (Spain) in the West Indies. England also promised to evacuate Malta and Egypt, which the French had occupied in 1798 and which England had taken from them. In return, Napoleon agreed to evacuate the Kingdom of Naples to guarantee the integrity of Portugal, restore Egypt to the Ottoman Empire, and recognize the independence of the Ionian Islands. After peace was restored, Napoleon extended French influence to Holland (the Batavian Republic), Switzerland (the Helvetic Republic), and Savoy-Piedmont, which was annexed to France.

The peace between France and Britain was uneasy and short-lived. European monarchies were reluctant to recognize the republic, fearing that the ideas of the revolution might be exported to them. In England, the brother of Louis XVI was welcomed as a state guest, although officially England recognized France as a republic. England failed to evacuate Malta as promised and protested the French annexation of Piedmont.

Within thirteen months of the Treaty of Amiens in May 1803, war broke out again between England and France. The responsibility for breaking the peace at Amiens rests squarely on Napoleon. In his struggle to subdue England and destroy her colonial empire and trading position, he considered Amiens only a truce.

England was alarmed by the steady growth of Napoleon’s influence in various parts of the European continent. He annexed Piedmont and took control of Genoa. He became the president of the Forecourt of the Republic. Holland was occupied by Napoleon in 1800, and a new constitution was imposed on the country. The work of reorganizing the German states was completed under Napoleon’s leadership, which was named the Confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon refused to renew the commercial treaty that had existed between England and France before 1793 and imposed high tariffs on British goods that made the resumption of trade virtually impossible.

In 1803, Napoleon sent an army to occupy Hanover, whose elector was King George III of England. The ruler of Prussia, Frederick William III, protested against the French invasion of Hanover but took no further action to prevent it. Even though the Kingdom of Naples was not at war with France, Napoleon sent troops to that country to occupy its ports. Spain and Portugal were forced by threats to pay subsidies to France, and the Dutch and Swiss were ordered to contribute troops. These measures were intended by Napoleon as preliminary steps to the invasion and conquest of England. Napoleon, however, raised resentment and alarm in various parts of the continent.

Napoleon-Emperor of the French

In February 1804, former police minister Joseph Fouche uncovered a British-funded plot to assassinate Napoleon. After these events, which revived royalist hostility, the Senate asked Napoleon to establish a hereditary dynasty. Thus, on December 2, 1804, Napoleon was crowned emperor at a ceremony in Notre Dame de Paris presided over by Pope Pius VII. Napoleon created a titular court that included many of his statesmen and generals, as well as ex-royalists. Believing that family ties were more permanent than treaties, over the next few years he placed members of his family on the thrones of several satellite states—Naples, Holland, Westphalia, and Spain—and married his relatives into some of the most prominent families in Europe.

Conclusion

So Napoleon’s rise to power was meteoric and spectacular. Napoleon established an undisputed position in France through his bravery, military skills, and statesmanship, culminating in his coronation as “Emperor of the French.”. On his rise to political power in France, Napoleon said, “I found the crown of France lying on the ground, and I picked it up with my sword.

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