Later Vedic Age

The Later Vedic Age, which spanned from about 1000 BCE to 500 BCE in ancient India, was a pivotal period of socio-religious evolution after the Early Vedic Age. This era, characterized by the composition of the Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas, marked the culmination of Vedic literature.

During the later Vedic age, society became more complex with the emergence of a caste system that organized individuals into distinct social groups, or varans. The main varnas consisted of Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (traders and farmers), and Shudras (laborers). The caste system began to play a significant role in shaping Indian society.

Religious rituals, sacrifices, and yajnas (fire ceremonies) remained prominent, but there was a shift towards the worship of deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi, marking the early roots of what later became the major sects and philosophies in Hinduism.

The later Vedic age laid the foundation for the classical period of Indian civilization, with its rich cultural, social, and religious developments, which served as precursors to the diverse and complex tapestry of ancient India.

Later Vedic Age

Historical Facts	Later Vedic Age
Time Period	Around 1000 to 600 BCE
Key Texts	Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads
Social Structure	Caste system (Varnas), Rigidity of social roles
Deities	Indra, Agni, Varuna, Yama, etc.
Philosophical Thought	Emergence of Upanishads and exploration of Atman and Brahman
Trade and Urbanization	Increased trade and growth of towns and cities
Archaeological Sites	Hastinapura, Kaushambi, etc.
Influence on Culture	Foundation for the caste system, religious traditions, and philosophy

Introduction

The period now under discussion stretches from roughly 1000 BC to 600 BC. During this period, some Vedic tribes migrated from the “Sapta Sindhava” region to the upper Ganga Valley and other adjacent regions. The period of this shift saw several changes in their social, political, economic, and religious structure. In this section, we will discuss the main aspects of these changes.

Sources

To study this period, we obtained both literary and archaeological sources.

(i) Literary sources

Other Vedic texts that are assigned to the later Vedic phase are later additions, notably the 10th mandala to the Rigveda and Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Veda Samhitas. The Sama Veda Samhita is a book of prayers and chants that come from the Rigveda, adapted and set to tune for the express purpose of chanting them during rituals. Yajurveda elaborates on the rituals that accompany the recitation of hymns. The rituals and hymns in this Samhita document the social and political environment of the period. The Atharva Veda contains the folk tradition of the period and represents the folk religion. It is a good source for understanding the socio-religious conditions of the common people.

These Samhitas are followed by a series of texts called Brahmanas, which are commentaries on the Vedas. They explain the social and religious aspects of the rituals and throw light on Vedic society. Although it would be incorrect to consider any period of early Indian history as an “epic” period, the two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are rich in information about various aspects of early Indian society. Historians believe that the core of what is reflected in these epics can be traced back to the later Vedic phase. The geographical focus of the phase was on the territory of the upper and middle Ganga basins, although other regions are also mentioned. In the epic, the main events also took place in this region. However, we must remember that there is nothing to prove that the stories told in the epics were actual historical events. Second, both epics took centuries to reach their present form. So there are many types of societies that we can find in the epics.

(ii) Archaeological Sources

(a) Literary sources repeatedly refer to the regions of Western U.P., Haryana, and Rajasthan. The period assigned to the later Vedic phase is about 1000 BCE to 600 BCE. Many communities and cultural groups are mentioned in the texts. Individual forms of ceramics cannot be identified with any tribe or group. However, in the same geographical area, some farming communities flourished around the same time period. These communities used a special type of pottery called Painted Gray Ware (PGW). Thus, these archaeological finds would reflect the material conditions of the later Vedic society.

(b) More than 700 PGW sites have been found along the Upper Ganga basin. Their distribution extends from the dry beds of the Ghaggar River in Bahawalpur and northern Rajasthan to the Indus-Ganges basin and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The eastern limits of this region are confined to the northern plains of the Ganges, as indicated by the site of Sravasti. Some important places in PGW are Atranjikhera, Ahichhatra, Noh, Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Bhagwanpura, and Jakhera.

(c) The Banas culture of southern Rajasthan, which dates from 2000 to 1400 BC, may have spread to the Ganges Valley around 800 BC. These Black and Red Ware users can therefore also be dated to the present time. Archeology does not prove the eastward shift of the “Vedic Aryans”, a shift that is hinted at in literary texts. Archeology does not record any single culture moving eastward. Thus, a great gap remains between the nature of literary and archaeological sources. However, there is a general point that the later Vedic society, like that reflected in archaeology, was an iron-using society.

(d) Iron objects are common at most PGW sites. Carbon 14 dates from Atranjikhera, Jodhpura, and Noh indicate that the metal was introduced around 1000–800 BC in the context of the Gangetic Plains. Iron ore mining in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Punjab, and later in southern Bihar, was an indigenous phenomenon. The Rigveda mentions “ayas”, which may refer to iron, although archaeological evidence dates iron to the later Vedic period. Literary sources sufficiently confirm this. The Yajurveda qualifies “ayas” as Syama ayas, and the Brahamanas speak of Krishna ayas. Both words refer to black metal, which means iron.

(e) Recent excavations suggest that even the megalithic inhabitants of South India knew iron technology. Therefore, we can no longer talk about the introduction of iron technology to the Indian subcontinent by migrating Aryans.

Iron Technology and Its Impacts

An important question to ask here is: did the knowledge of iron lead to any advances in the metal technology of the time? Similarly, it would also be interesting to know to what extent the introduction of a new technology changes the material environment of society.

Evidence from the later Vedic period suggests a transition from a pastoral society to a settled agrarian society. Earlier, it was suggested that socket axes made of iron were widely used for clearing forests and the Gangetic Doab for permanent cultivation. Iron-tipped plowshares and hoes were also believed to increase the efficiency of agricultural implements, thus promoting agricultural activity. Thus, scientists believed that knowledge of iron technology was an important factor in the development of an agrarian economy. However, we now know that the later Vedic period was neither purely agrarian nor very advanced in iron technology. The rich iron ore mines of Bihar were still untapped, and iron smelting technology was primitive.

The objects found in the excavations are iron arrowheads, spearheads, etc., i.e., weapons, of which the largest number comes from the Ahichhatra excavations. Sickles, hoes, and axes are rarely found in excavations. One plowshare was reported from Jakarta, which probably belongs to the end of this period. The excavations, therefore, show that the use of iron was limited to the manufacture of weapons. Iron did not influence agricultural technology until the second half of the first millennium BC, when the swamps and monsoon forests of the central Ganga valley were gradually cleared.

In the later Vedic period, forest clearance by burning was carried out in the upper Doab. We have an account of the burning of Khandava Vana in the Mahabharata to establish the city of Indraprastha. Iron-tipped weapons and horse-drawn chariots aided the military activities that were the order of the day during this period and were extensively documented in the Mahabharata. However, iron technology had virtually no role in subsistence activities.

Nature of Economy

The growth of agriculture in the later Vedic period was made possible by the availability of large areas of fertile alluvial lands of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the central Ganga valley, an area that was slowly settled during the first millennia BC However, the later Vedic texts reflect the continued importance of pastoralism. Archaeological and literary sources attest to the introduction of rice as the basic diet of people. The PGW and Banas cultures yield charred rice grains from excavated sites. Vedic texts mention Vrihi, Tandula, and Sali, all referring to rice. Crops appear to have been grown now, with both barley and rice growing in the fields. Elaborate victims of this period, e.g., Rajasuya, include grain offerings along with milk, ghee, and animals. The twelve sacrifices prescribed in the Atharvaveda for obtaining material benefits recommend gifts such as cows, calves, oxen, gold, cooked rice, thatched houses, and well-cultivated fields to Brahmins. The menu items clearly indicate the growing importance of homesteading and agriculture. Later Vedic texts also refer to eight, twelve, and even twenty-four oxen hitched to the plow. Although the number of oxen given is perhaps symbolic, the reference indicates that plow cultivation was known during this period.

(i) The importance of pastoralism declines

Pastoralism was no longer the main subsistence activity of the people, as it was in the early Vedic period. Mixed farming, which included cultivation and pastoralism, was the occupational norm during this period. Agricultural activity at this stage was not labor-intensive. The sites from which the remains of rice have been found in the excavations are located in the elevated areas of the Doab. This indicates that wet rice cultivation, which is labor-intensive, has not been practiced until now.

Mixed farming led to the emergence of settled settlements. PGW deposits are generally 2 to 3 m deep and indicate that people lived in the same place for a long time. At Bhagwanpura and Jakhera, excavations show that the earlier phase of circular huts made of wicker and daub or wood was replaced by more substantial mud-walled houses during this period. Due to the sedentary way of life, durable materials were used to build the houses.

(ii) Changes in the Functions of Rituals In early Vedic society, rituals were performed to ensure the welfare of the entire tribe. The gods were worshiped for securing victory over other tribes and giving cattle and sons. It was also an opportunity for the chiefs to share their wealth. In later Vedic society, the function of rituals underwent a subtle change. Rituals became much more elaborate, which could take years. Therefore, only the rich could perform them. The spirit of collectivity was reduced. Sacrifices were made to ensure control over the rest of the tribe. Gifts were no longer given to the entire tribe. Rather, the chief gave gifts to Brahmans who performed sacrifices for him. The rituals were so complicated that skilled Brahmins were needed to perform them, as the wrong incantation could spell disaster for the performer. The purpose of the sacrifices was to grant the chiefs superhuman status, meaning that they were superior to the rest of the tribe. For this service, the chief gave a large part of his wealth to the Brahman priest. Thus, the rituals became a mechanism for ensuring the material and spiritual superiority of the chiefs and Brahmins.

(iii) Emerging importance of land

The land was cultivated by family labor and with the help of domestic servants and slaves. In this period, the land was initially owned by a clan or vis. As clan ownership gradually changed to family ownership, the grihapati, or householder, became a wealthy man. The Vaisyas (those who originally belonged to the Vis) were the producing class in society and became a source of wealth and livelihood for the Kshatriyas and Brahmins, who were not actively involved in food production. The Vaishyas had to submit to the Kshatriyas instead of protecting their lands, and dana and dakshina to the priests for their moral upliftment. The vis/vaisya, characterizing the household economy, became the mainstay of the economy. Presentations and taxes to the non-producing classes helped in the distribution of subsistence goods. There is no mention of the sale of land. Visvakarma Bhauvana, the ruler, was reprimanded by Prithvi (Earth) when he tried to grant land. This textual reference indicates the joint ownership of lands in which the vi had major participation rights.

Later Vedic Civilization

The transition from a predominantly pastoral to a mixed agricultural economy had a major impact on the character of later Vedic civilization. The main trends of change were The tribal identity of early Vedic society gradually gave way to territorial identity, and subsequently, the nature of chieftaincy changed. Jana was used in the Rigvedic period to mean people or tribe, but now the concept of Janapada has emerged. Janapada meant the area where the tribe settled. The word rashtra was also first used in later Vedic texts. However, it was still not used in the sense of a state with precisely defined territories. The Kurus, who formed from the amalgamation of the two main Vedic tribes—the Bharatas and the Purus—are mentioned in the texts as inhabiting the region in the upper part of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Similarly, the Panchalas are mentioned as the people who occupied the central part of the Doab, called Panchala desa. This suggests that tribal identities merged with territorial identities. It is also stated that when the Kurus and the Panchals united, their authority over the upper and middle reaches of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab was complete. These changes in the relationship between Jana and the area she ruled over helped to create the Mahajanapadas and Janapadas by the 6th century BCE.

(i) Tribal Chiefs and Warriors

As tribal groups merged and identified with certain territories, it also brought about a change in the status and functions of tribal chiefs. The Rajan, or chief, no longer engaged only in cattle raids but emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled. Rajanya, who had already been the superior lineage during the Rigvedic period, now became ‘Kshatriya’ i.e., those who had power over dominions, which is the literal meaning of the word ‘Kshatriya’. The Kshatriya class based their power on their role as protectors of their tribes and the land over which their tribes settled. “Vis” had to pay Kshatriya presentation instead of protecting them, and thus their status was gradually subordinated to Kshatriya lineage. Bali and Bhaga no longer meant resolutions issued at will but gradually took the form of regular tributes and taxes.

(ii) Tribal Assemblies

The changing status of the Kshatriyas, or warrior class, is also reflected in the changing nature of tribal assemblies. The sabha became more important than the samiti during this period. The reference to rajas in an assembly or sabha suggests that they assisted the king in his duties. The office of raja or chief was not based on birth alone, but the selection of rajas was limited to Kshatriyas.

(iii) Raj’s Legitimacy

In the absence of fixed principles of inheritance and primogeniture, initiation rituals became very important for rulers to assert this authority. Ceremonial sacrifices like Rajasuja, Asvamedha, and Vajapeya were therefore performed on a grand scale. In the Rigvedic period, the asvamedha yajna was a minor affair. But in this period, it was done to subjugate other areas and legitimize the ruler’s control over foreign lands. The other yajnas included prayers for the health of the rulers, and all three were essentially legitimizing methods used by the raja to proclaim his supremacy and power. For example, the sacrificer was declared a raja during the rajasuya. These sacrifices were found to be important even in later periods when new kingdoms and new rulers emerged. They used sacrifices to give religion legitimacy to its power.

The Raja was also required to integrate his territory with resources, economic production, and distribution, which greatly increased his status from that of a mere raider or hatta leader. However, he was not yet sovereign. The fact that he was elected and could be removed placed severe limitations on him, as he was accountable to the clan. He also did not name the other rajas who assisted him in his duties. They were chiefs in their own right. Importantly, the Kshatriya lineage gained a distinctly superior position during this period, the reason being that the concept of territorial identity was established now. The territory thus became the physical manifestation of the ruler’s power to rule.

(iv) Tribal Conflicts

Nature of intra-tribal conflicts. Conflicts within tribes have also changed. The fights were no longer mere skirmishes over cattle; the acquisition of land was now an important element in these disputes. The need to expand territory may be related to population growth within tribes. Iron weapons and light horse-powered wheeled chariots increased the effectiveness of warriors. The Mahabharata depicts intra-clan warfare between the Kauravas and the Pandavas of the Kuru clan.

(v) Priest

As the Rajanya Kshatriya grew in importance, the Brahmins also became important as they legitimized the office of the ruler through initiation rituals. The redistribution of wealth through dana and Dakshina on such occasions was primarily from the Kshatriya Jayamans to the Brahmin priests. Elaborate initiation rituals indicate that initially, the raja’s power was not so secure, and therefore he had to provide proof of his ability to rule. The status of the priests who served as priests became equal to that of the gods in the later period. It was believed that the gods had to be propitiated by yajnas, and the attendant brahmins had to be fed with data. Thus, the channel of redistribution was between the two higher-status groups, and political supremacy slowly became the domain of the Kshatriyas.

Later Vedic Society

The transition from a predominantly pastoral to a mixed agricultural economy had a major impact on the character of the later Vedic society. The social structure, which was based on intra-clan relationships and was largely egalitarian in the early Vedic period, became much more complex. This type of society is characterized by inequality. Even the same clan was divided into groups, some of which had a high position in society and some had a low position. We have already read about the declining status of the Vishvas and the dominance of the Kshatriyas and Brahmins. Society thus consisted of unequal groups.

(i) Rigveda hymn

This hymn describes the origin of the four varnas, i.e., Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra, from the body of the universal creator Prajapati. The hymn of primitive man comes from the later part of the Rigveda. Thus, the hymn describes the origin of the four varnas for the first time. He says……

“When they divided the man into how many parts did they divide him? What was his mouth, what were his arms, and what were his thighs and legs called?”

“Brahman was his mouth; his arms became a Kshatriya; his thighs became a Vaishya; a Sudra was born from his feet.”

The symbolism reflected in these hymns is that Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Shudra are members of society. However, these limbs did not have equal status. Brahman was compared to the head, while Shudra was compared to the feet. In social life, Brahmins were considered the highest Varna because society could communicate with the gods only with the help of Brahmins. Sudras, on the other hand, performed menial tasks and included slaves captured in wars.

(ii) Brewhouse Concept

The brewhouse system had the following features:

• (a) status by birth,
• (b) the hierarchical arrangement of varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra), with Brahmana at the top and Sudra at the base.
• (c) rules of endogamy and ritual purity.

The varna system is further tied to the concept of dharma, i.e., universal law, and varna dharma was an attempt to introduce a social law for the systematic functioning of society. However, the varnadharma system was not properly developed in later Vedic society. The division of social groups was based only on occupation, and society was still flexible, where occupation did not depend on birth. Even in later times, i.e., post-Vedic times, varnashrama described the ritual status of each group. The Varna system did not prevent non-Kshatriyas from claiming Kshatriya status and becoming rulers (examples are the Nandas and Mauryas) or Brahmins from claiming political sovereignty (e.g., the Sunga kings).

Thus, the theoretical model of the Varna system could never be firmly established in the post-Vedic period. It is likely that during the later Vedic period, with the shift in geographic focus, the Vedic people encountered many non-Vedic tribes, and considerable interaction must have helped create a composite society. At least the Atharvaveda describes a number of non-Vedic religious practices that were sanctioned by priests. However, tribal endogamy through strict marriage rules was aimed at preserving the purity of the tribe. The growing importance of Kshatriyas and Brahmins in society also forced the maintenance of their exclusive superior position compared to others. However, during the later Vedic period, the concept of varna was basic in nature. For example, the concept of untouchability is missing.

(iii) Gotra

During this period, the institution of gotra (literally meaning cow pen) emerged. In contrast to tribal endogamy (marriage within the tribe), people practiced gotra exogamy (marriage outside the gotra). Gotra meant descent from a common ancestor, and marriages could not take place between couples belonging to the same gotra.

(iv) Family

The patriarchal family was well established, and the chapatis were given a special status. Since the household economy was gaining dominance, the position of the householder also gained economic importance. Land rights were based on use, and communal ownership of land was prevalent. Grihapatis were wealthy, and their ritual role was yajamana (ie one who orders sacrifices). Their wealth did not come from gifts but was made by their own efforts. Through the yajnas, they were required to perform to gain merit, and some of their wealth went to the Brahmins. Despite the presence of some female philosophers and mentions of several queens participating in coronation rituals, women were considered subordinate to men and were not involved in any major decision-making.

(v) Three stages of life

Three ashrams, i.e., stages of life, were prescribed, and these stages were brahmachari (studentship), grihastha (household), and vanaprastha (partial withdrawal from domestic life by forest life). The fourth, i.e., sannyasa (or complete withdrawal from active participation in the world), stage of life seems to have been unknown until the time the Upanishads were written. Sannyas, or ascetics in later periods, were individuals who either passively or actively protested the Vedic social structure.

Later Vedic Religion

The texts of this period show two different religious traditions: the Vedic, which is attested in the Sama, and the Yajurveda. the Samhitas and the Brahmanas, and the non-Vedic or perhaps folk tradition extensively documented in the Atharvaveda. The fact that the Atharvan religious tradition was considered part of the Vedic suggests the assimilation of different cultures and beliefs into the Vedic religious system. The Yajurveda Samhita and the Brahmanas document the sacrificial religion of this period. Sacrifices became important in this period and took on a public and private character. Public sacrifices, eg Rajasuyas, Vajapeya, and Asvamedha, were performed on a massive scale in which the entire community participated. Some of the rituals performed at these sacrifices show elements of a fertility cult. The Asvamedha yajna, for example, required the main queen to lie next to a sacrificial horse, where the queen represented the earth, and this ritual was supposed to ensure prosperity for the king. Several agricultural rituals were performed in Rajasuya and Vajapeya yajnas. The regular rejuvenation of the earth and its fertility are some of the themes that were included in the ceremonial yajnas.

(i) Priestly Art

Later Vedic texts reveal the elaboration of rituals, which were elaborate and required professional men trained in the art of performing them. Vidhis, or rules for performing sacrifices, were formulated, and Vedic sacrifices no longer meant the mere offering of food or offerings to the fire. The kinds of offerings, kinds of sacrifices, etc., varied according to the needs of the patron, or yajamana. Sacrifices were now endowed with mystical symbolism, and each ritual act was endowed with mysterious power. A new science of priesthood emerged because of the complexities involved in performing these yajnas, whether private or public. Thus, the priestly class became specialists in performing Yajnas. There were even different groups of priests performing different phases of the same sacrificial ritual.

(ii) Changing Gods

The two prominent early Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their importance. Prajapati, the creator, became important. This phenomenon also now represents the importance of sedentism, as creation myths are important in agrarian groups. Rudra, a minor deity in the Rigveda, now became important, and Vishnu was conceived as the creator and protector of the universe. Pushan, formerly the protector of cattle, now becomes the god of the Sudras. The changing position of the deities indicates a change in the character of the tribes from pastoral groups to sedentary agricultural groups. The early Vedic gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly phased out, and the personification of natural elements as divine beings became very complex. It was no longer easy to find a natural element that represented a particular god in the hymns of the later Vedic period.

(iii) Folk-lore

The Atharvaveda is a mine of information on folklore. Its content is radically different from the Vedic sacrificial religion and is more concerned with magic. The content of this Veda covers various aspects of human life. Hymns deal with:

• (a) treatment of diseases
• (b) prayers for health
• (c) charms for the prosperity of the home and children
• (d) cattle and fields
• (e) charms to create harmony
• (f) spells related to love and marriage or vice versa rivalry and jealousy etc.

The Atharvaveda thus documents the kinds of superstitions and beliefs that prevailed. The term Atharvan refers to the magical formula and the Atharvan priests officiating in this religion. The gods of the Vedic tradition were invoked, but the reasons for which they were invoked were trivial and individualistic. Many gods and spirits, such as pisacas, rakshasas, and so on (some malevolent and some benevolent), were invoked either to bring good fortune or to wreak havoc and destruction on their friends and enemies. The invocations and chants were related to the home and household and were close to the daily cycles of the common man’s existence.

For example, Indra was asked to kill a robber, a worm in the flesh, and a wolf devil. The Asvins were entrusted with the protection of agriculture and the killing of rats. Savitri was summoned to fix a place where a new home could be built. Pusan ​​was invoked to bring harmony and safe childbirth, while Surya was invoked to remove demons.

Towards the end of this period, a strong reaction against priestly supremacy and the complexity of the yajnas resulted in the formulation of the philosophical doctrine that is enunciated in the Upanisads. These texts emphasized the knowledge of the atman, or soul, against the ritualistic practices and wasteful expenditure that accompanied the sacrifices. Thus, the materialistic aspect of religion was discarded, and religion was elevated to the realm of philosophy. The Upanishads emphasized the immutability and indestructibility of the soul, which in a way seemed to emphasize the need for stability and integration in the period when the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, i.e., republics and monarchies, were emerging.

Thus, we find that there was a great change in religious belief and practice between the early Vedic and later Vedic times. This change was partly related to the transition from pastoralism to agriculture. The religious changes of this period parallel and reflect the socio-political and economic changes that took place from the early Vedic to the late Vedic phase.

Conclusion

The later Vedic period therefore saw extreme economic, social, political, and religious changes that weighed both aspects of good and evil. This period was primarily dependent on Vedic texts, scriptures, hymns, mantras, and others that influenced society on a large scale. Kingdoms grew larger, and more powerful kings and queens ruled and imposed regulations according to these Vedic texts. Trade, commerce, the food industry, women’s rights, child marriage, the caste system, and the religious system influenced people during this period. The Aryans expanded the administration and political systems. The most powerful figures wanted to be the sole ruler (Ekarat or Samrat) and lord of the land (Sarvabhauma).