Hinduism

A diverse and ancient religion originating from the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism embodies a rich tapestry of beliefs, practices, and traditions. Without a single founder or central religious authority, Hinduism is a patchwork of philosophies, rituals, and cultural expressions that have evolved over thousands of years.

At its core, Hinduism includes the concepts of dharma (righteous duty), karma (law of cause and effect), and moksha (liberation from the cycle of reincarnation). The religion includes a vast number of scriptures, including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, and epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.

Hindu worship is very diverse, from elaborate temple rituals to personal meditation, and often includes devotion to deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Lakshmi, and Durga. The religion also recognizes the sacredness of all living beings and the interconnectedness of existence.

Celebrations and festivals like Diwali, Holi, and Navaratri play a key role in Hindu life, fostering community spirit and strengthening cultural values. Rooted in Hindu philosophy, yoga and meditation have gained worldwide popularity as paths to spiritual well-being.

The adaptability and inclusiveness of Hinduism have allowed it to coexist with various cultural and philosophical currents, making it not only a religion but also a way of life that accommodates a spectrum of beliefs and practices. As one of the world’s major religions, Hinduism continues to inspire individuals around the world, promoting spiritual exploration, ethical living, and a deep connection with the universe.

Hinduism

Historical Facts	Hinduism
Founders	There was no single founder; evolved over thousands of years
Sacred Texts	Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, and Mahabharata
Deities	Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Hanuman, etc.
Beliefs	Dharma (moral and social duties), Karma (action), Samsara (cycle of rebirth), and Moksha (liberation)
Rituals	Puja (worship), Yagna (ritual offerings), and festivals like Diwali and Holi
Places of Worship	Temples and home shrines
Caste System	Historically significant, but evolving in contemporary times
Spiritual Practices	Yoga, Meditation, Bhakti (devotion), and Jnana (knowledge)
Symbols	Om, Swastika (as a sacred symbol), Lotus flower
Holidays	Diwali, Holi, Navaratri, Raksha Bandhan, etc.
Concept of God	Varied, with monotheistic, polytheistic, and pantheistic elements

Introduction

Hinduism is an Indian religion or dharma, a religious and universal order or way of life followed by followers. As a religion, it is the third largest in the world, with approximately 1.2 billion followers, or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The word Hinduism is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, it has also been described as Sanatana dharma, a modern usage based on the belief that its origins lie outside of human history as revealed in Hindu texts. . Another endonym is Vaidika Dharma, a dharma related to the Vedas. Hinduism is a diverse system of thought characterized by several philosophies and shared concepts, rituals, cosmological systems, pilgrimage sites, and shared textual sources that deal with theology, metaphysics, mythology, Vedic yajna, yoga, agamic rituals, and temple construction. other topics. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Purusarthas, the proper ends or goals of human life; namely dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/liberation from passions and the cycle of death and rebirth), as well as karma (action, intention and consequences) and saṃsāra (cycle death and rebirth). Hinduism prescribes eternal duties such as honesty, abstinence from harm to living beings (ahimsa), patience, forbearance, self-control, virtue and compassion, among others. Hindu practices include worship (puja), fire rituals (homa/havan), devotion (bhakti), fasting (vrata), chanting (japa), meditation (dhyana), sacrifice (yajna), charity (dana), selfless service (seva ), learning and knowledge (jnana), scripture recitation and interpretation (pravacana), honoring one’s ancestors (Sraddha), family-centered rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages (yatra). Along with the various practices associated with yoga, some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions and engage in lifelong sannyasa (monkship) to attain moksha.

Etymology

(1) The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit root Sindhu, which is believed to be the name of the river Indus in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The Proto-Iranian sound change s > h occurred between 850 and 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpol. According to Gavin Flood, “the actual term Hinduism first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)”, more specifically in an inscription of Darius I (550–486 BC) of the 6th ). The term Hinduism in these ancient records is a geographical term and does not denote a religion. Thapar states that the word Hindu occurs in the Avesta as heptahindu – the equivalent of the Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstan (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription of the 3rd century CE, both denoting parts of northwestern South Asia. In Arabic texts, al-Hind referred to the land behind the Indians, and therefore all the people in that land were Hindus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. In the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning “Land of the Hindus”.

(2) Among the earliest known records of “Hindu” with religious connotations may be the 7th-century Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang and the 14th-century Persian text Futuhu’s-salatin by “Abd al-Malik Isami”. Some Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts of the 16th–18th century refer to Hinduism and Hindu dharma to distinguish them from Muslims without defining the terms positively. In the 18th century, European traders and colonists began to refer to followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The use of the English term “Hinduism” to describe a set of practices and beliefs is a relatively recent construction. The term Hinduism was first used by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1816–17. In the 1840s, the term “Hinduism” was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians. Before the British began to categorize communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead, identities were largely divided based on locality, language, varna, jati, occupation and sect.

Definition of Hinduism

(1) Hinduism includes a diversity of spiritual ideas and traditions, but has no church order, no unquestionable religious authority, no governing body, no prophets, and no binding holy book; Hindus can choose between polytheistic, pantheistic, pantheistic, pantheistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or humanistic views. According to Mahatma Gandhi, “a man need not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu.” According to Wendy Doniger, “subjects on all the major issues of faith and lifestyle—vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste—are matters of debate, not dogma.”

(2) Due to the wide variety of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, it is difficult to arrive at a complete definition. Religion “defies our desire to define and categorize it”. Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs and a “way of life”. From a Western lexical point of view, Hinduism, like other religions, is aptly referred to as a religion. In India, the preferred term is dharma, which is broader than the Western term “religion”.

(3) The study of India and its cultures and religions and the definition of “Hinduism” have been shaped by the interests of colonialism and Western ideas about religion. Since the 1990s, these influences and their results have been the subject of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and critiques of the Western view of India have also been taken up.

History of Hinduism

(1) The varied history of Hinduism overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age civilization, with some of its traditions dating back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. Scholars consider Hinduism to be a synthesis of different Indian cultures and traditions with different roots and without a single founder. The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the Pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local prehistoric religions, ending around 1750 BC. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migration, beginning somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE. The following period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is “the turning point between the Vedic religion and the Hindu religions” and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Epic and early Puranic periods, from ca. 200 BCE to 500 CE saw the classic “Golden Age” of Hinduism (c. 320–650 CE), coinciding with the Gupta Empire. Six branches of Hindu philosophy namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta developed during this period. Monotheistic sects such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during the same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 AD constitutes the Late Classical Period or Early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism and Adi Shankar’s influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta were established.

(2) Hinduism under both Hindu and Islamic rulers from c. 1250-1750 CE saw the growing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by Western movements such as Unitarianism and Theosophy. In the Kingdom of Nepal, the unification of Nepal by the Shah dynasty was accompanied by the Hinduization of the state and continued until the 1950s. Indians were employed as plantation laborers in British colonies such as Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago. The partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with the Hindu-majority Republic of India emerging. During the 20th century, the Indian diaspora created Hindu minorities on all continents, the largest communities in absolute numbers being in the United States of America and the United Kingdom.

(3) In the 20th-21st century many missionary organizations like ISKCON, Sathya Sai Organization, Vedanta Society and so on. they were influential in spreading the basic culture of Hinduism outside India. There has also been a rise in Hindu identity in politics, mostly in India, Nepal and Bangladesh in the form of Hindutva. The revivalist movement was mainly started and supported by many organizations like RSS, BJP and other Sangh Parivar organizations in India, while there are also many Hindu nationalist parties and organizations like Shiv Sena Nepal and RPP in Nepal, HINDRAF in Malaysia etc. In September 2021, the the state of New Jersey joined with the World Hindu Council to declare October as Hindu Heritage Month.

Diversity of Hinduism

Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, which is why Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion. Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts. Hinduism does not have “a single belief system codified in a statement of faith or creed”, but rather is an umbrella term encompassing the plurality of religious phenomena of India. Part of the problem with a single definition of Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism has no founder. It is a synthesis of various traditions, “Brahmanical orthopraxy, renunciation traditions and folk or local traditions”. Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or were atheists.

Sense of Unity in Hinduism

Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity. Most Hindu traditions honor a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. These texts are a reminder of an ancient cultural heritage and a point of pride for Hindus, although Louis Renou stated that “even in the most orthodox areas, reverence for the Vedas has become a mere tip of the hat”. Halbfass states that while Shaivism and Vaishnavism can be considered “closed religious constellations”, there is a degree of interaction and reference between the “theorists and literary exponents” of each tradition that suggests the presence of a “broader sense of identity”. , a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon’.

Classical Hinduism

Brahmins played a vital role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, spreading Vedic culture to local communities and integrating local religiosity into transregional Brahmin culture. In the post-Gupta period, Vedanta developed in South India, where orthodox Brahmanical culture and Hindu culture were preserved, building on ancient Vedic traditions while “accommodating the diverse demands of Hinduism”.

Medieval Developments in Hinduism

(1) The notion of common denominators for the several religions and traditions of India continued to develop from the 12th century CE. Lorenzen traces the emergence of a “family resemblance” and the formation of what he calls “the beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism” in c. 300 -600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas and continuity with the earlier Vedic religion. Lorenzen states that the establishment of Hindu self-identity occurred “through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other”. According to Lorenzen, this “presence of the Other” is necessary to recognize a “loose family resemblance” between different traditions and schools.

(2) According to Indologist Alexis Sanderson, before the arrival of Islam in India, “Sanskrit sources distinguished the Vaidika, Vaishnava, Saiva, Sakta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but had no name to designate the first five as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism”. This absence of a formal name, Sanderson states, does not mean that a corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By the end of the 1st millennium CE, a concept of faith and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism emerged. This complex tradition has adopted into its identity almost everything that is Hinduism today, apart from certain antinomian tantric movements. Some conservative thinkers of the time questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas or invalid in their entirety. The moderates of the time, and most orthopraxic scholars later, agreed that although there were some variations, the basis of their faith, ritual grammar, spiritual premises, and soteriology were the same. “This sense of greater unity”, says Sanderson, “came to be called Hinduism”.

(3) According to Nicholson, as early as between the 12th and 16th centuries, “certain thinkers began to consider as a whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, the Epics, the Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the ‘six systems’ (saddarsana). ) of mainstream Hindu philosophy.” The tendency to “blur philosophical distinctions” has also been noted by Mikel Burley. Hacker calls it “inclusivism” and Michaels refers to the “habit of identification.” Lorenzen locates the origin of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus and in the process of “mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other’ which began long before 1800.

Colonial Hinduism and Neo-Vedanta

This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta, and became characteristic of modern Hinduism. The notion and reporting of “Hinduism” as a “unified world religious tradition” was also popularized by 19th-century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, whose role was sometimes served by the same person who relied on texts kept by brahmins (priests) for their information. of Indian religions and animistic observations, which the Orientalist missionaries assumed to be Hinduism. These reports influenced the perception of Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington argue that colonial polemical reports led to constructed stereotypes where Hinduism was merely a mystical paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and similar texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity and in the modern association of “Hindu doctrine” with schools of Vedanta (especially Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of Hinduism.” Pennington, while agreeing that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is an invention of colonial European He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify as Hindus can be traced back to antiquity.

Hinduism in modern India and the world

The Hindutva movement argued extensively for the unity of Hinduism, rejecting differences and considering India as a Hindu country since ancient times. And there are assumptions about the political dominance of Hindu nationalism in India, also known as “neo-Hindutva”. Hindutva predominance has also increased in Nepal, similar to India. The extent of Hinduism is also increasing in other parts of the world, due to cultural influences such as yoga and the Hare Krishna movement by many missionary organizations, especially Iskcon, and this is also due to the migration of Indian Hindus to other nations. world. Hinduism is growing rapidly in many Western countries and in some African countries.

Hindu Beliefs

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not limited to) Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsara (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and resulting birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action, intention and consequences), Moksha (liberation from attachment and samsara) and various yogas (paths or practices). However, not all of these themes are found among the various Hindu belief systems. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu faiths, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism that were characterized by belief in an afterlife, with traces of this still to be found among various Hindu faiths, such as Sraddha. Ancestor worship once formed an integral part of the Hindu faith and is still found today as an important element in various popular Hindu streams.

(1) Purusharthas

Purusharthas refers to the goals of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four inherent goals or objectives of human life, known as Purusarthas – Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

(a) Dharma (Moral Duties, Justice, Ethics)

In Hinduism, Dharma is considered as the main goal of a human being. The term dharma includes conduct that is considered to be in accordance with rta, the order that makes life and the universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and the “right way of life”. Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and obligations of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, proper behavior and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to Van Buitenen, is what all existing beings must accept and respect in order to maintain harmony and order in the world. It is, says Van Buitenen, the pursuit and exercise of one’s own nature and true vocation, and thus to play one’s part in the cosmic concert. In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as maintaining the affairs of this world and the other world. The word Sanatana means eternal, permanent or forever; So Sanatana Dharma means that it is a dharma that has no beginning and no end.

(b) Artha (means or resources needed for a full life)

Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, property or livelihood for the purpose of fulfilling obligations, economic prosperity and a full life. It includes political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The concept of artha includes all the “means of life”, activities and resources that enable a person to be in the state he wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security. The right search for artha is considered an important goal of human life in Hinduism. A central premise of Hindu philosophy, argues John Koller, is that every person should live a joyful, pleasant, and fulfilling life where every person’s needs are recognized and met. Human needs can only be satisfied if sufficient resources are available. Artha is thus best described as the search for the means necessary for a joyful, pleasant and fulfilling life.

(c) Kama (Sensual, Emotional and Aesthetic Pleasure)

Kama means desire, wish, passion, desire and pleasure of the senses, aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations. In contemporary Indian literature, kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature, kama is broad and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure derived from art. The ancient Indian epic Mahabharata describes kama as any pleasurable and desirable experience produced by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with whatever is associated with that sense when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha, and moksha). . In Hinduism, kama is considered the fundamental and wholesome goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.

(d) Moksha (liberation, freedom from suffering)

Moksha or mukti is the ultimate and most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with freedom from sorrow, suffering and, for many theistic schools of Hinduism, freedom from samsara (the cycle of birth and rebirth). Liberation from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in the theistic schools of Hinduism. Because of the belief in Hinduism that Atman is eternal and the concept of Purusha (cosmic self or cosmic consciousness), death can be considered insignificant compared to the eternal Atman or Purusha. Different opinions on the nature of moksha

The meaning of moksha varies among different Hindu schools of thought. Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha one knows that one’s essence or self is pure consciousness or witness consciousness and identifies it as identical with Brahman. Followers of the Dvaita (dualistic) schools believe that in the afterlife state of moksha, individual essences are distinct from Brahman but infinitely close, and upon attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in loka (heaven). More generally, in theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens throughout a person’s lifetime and is a psychological concept. According to Deutsche, moksha is the transcendental consciousness of a perfect state of being, self-realization, freedom, and “awareness of the entire universe as the Self.” When Moksha is understood as a psychological concept, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, it means liberating oneself from hitherto fettered faculties, removing obstacles to an unlimited life, enabling one to be a more truly person in the fullest sense. This concept assumes an untapped human potential for creativity, compassion and understanding that has previously been blocked and closed off. Because of these different views on the nature of moksha, the Vedantic school divides it into two views – Jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and Videhamukti (liberation after death).

(2) Karma and Samsara

Karma literally translates as action, work or deed and also refers to the Vedic theory of the “moral law of cause and effect”. A theory is a combination of (i) causality, which may be ethical or unethical; (ii) ethnicization, that is, good or bad actions have consequences; and (iii) rebirth. The theory of karma is interpreted as an explanation of an individual’s present circumstances with reference to his or her past actions. These actions and their consequences may be in one’s present life or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives. This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called samsara. Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. Hindu scriptures teach that the future is a function of present human effort derived from free will and past human actions that determine circumstances. The idea of ​​reincarnation or saṃsāra is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the Rigveda. . The later layers of the Rigveda allude to ideas that suggest an approach to the idea of ​​rebirth, according to Ranade. According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and ceremonies such as sraddha (offering food to ancestors). Later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanishads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, show little interest in ancestral rituals, and begin to interpret earlier rituals philosophically. The idea of ​​reincarnation and karma has its roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, which predated the Gautam Buddha and Mahavira.

(3) Concept of God

(a) Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs; his concept of God is complex and depends on each individual and the tradition and philosophy he follows. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (ie, it involves devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is too general. The Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of Creation) of the Rig Veda is one of the oldest texts that “demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation” about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and the One, and whether the One knows how the universe came into being. The Rigveda praises various deities, none superior or inferior, in a henotheistic manner. The hymns repeatedly refer to one truth and one ultimate reality. The “one truth” of Vedic literature has been interpreted in modern science as monotheism, monism, and also as deified hidden principles behind the great events and processes of nature.

(b) Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true “Self” of each person is called Atman. The Self is believed to be eternal. According to monistic/pantheistic (non-dualistic) theologies of Hinduism (such as the Advaita Vedanta school), this atman is non-different from Brahman, the supreme spirit or Supreme Reality. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one’s own Self is identical with the Supreme Self, that the Supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, that all life is interconnected, and that there is unity in all life. The dualistic schools (Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as the Supreme Being separate from the individual Self. They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva or Shakti, depending on the sect. God is called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva or Devi and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.

(c) Hindu texts adopt a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceived as a divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and life to inanimate natural substances. There is divinity in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, work tools, animals and birds, the rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents. It is the divine in them that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than being sacred in itself. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin see it, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite different from animism, in which all things are themselves divine. The animistic assumption sees multiplicity, and therefore equality of the ability to compete for power, when it comes to man and man, man and animal, man and nature, etc. The Vedic view does not perceive this competition, the equality of man with nature, or multiplicity as well as the overwhelming and unifying one divinity that unites all and everything.

(d) Hindu scriptures name celestial entities called Devas (or Devi in ​​feminine form) which can be translated into English as gods or celestial beings. Devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in scriptures, especially in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. However, it is often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of his particular manifestations as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference and regional and family traditions. The multitude of Devas are considered to be the manifestation of Brahman.

(e) The word avatar does not appear in Vedic literature but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature and as a noun especially in Puranic literature after the 6th century A.D. Theologically, the idea of ​​reincarnation is most often associated with the avatars of the Hindu god Vishnu, although the idea has been applied to other deities. Various lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatars of the Garuda Purana and the twenty-two avatars of the Bhagavata Purana, although the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable. Avatars of Vishnu are important in the theology of Vaishnavism. In the goddess-based tradition of Shaktism, avatars of the Devi are found, and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman and Shakti (energy). While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, it is less significant and occasional.

(f) Both theistic and atheistic ideas abound in various Hindu schools for epistemological and metaphysical reasons. For example, the early Nyaya school of Hinduism was non-theistic/atheistic, but later scholars of the Nyaya school claimed that God exists and offered proof using their theory of logic. Other schools disagreed with the Nyaya scholars. The Samkhya, Mimamsa and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that “God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption”. Her Vaisheshika school began as another non-theistic tradition based on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but later introduced the concept of a non-creator God. The Yoga school of Hinduism embraced the concept of a “personal god” and left it to the Hindu to define his god. Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in all, with no room for gods or deities, a perspective Mohanty calls “spiritual, not religious”. The Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God who is distinct from every human being.

(g) God is often represented in Hinduism, he has both a female and a male aspect. The concept of femininity in the deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairing of Shiva with Parvati (Ardhanarishvara), Vishnu accompanied by Lakshmi, Radha with Krishna, and Sita with Rama. According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest representation of the divine feminine in a world religion from ancient times to the present. The goddess is considered the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.

(4) Authority

Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism. Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars. However, there is also a strong tradition in Hinduism of questioning authority, internal debate, and questioning religious texts. Hindus believe it deepens the understanding of eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority “was mediated through an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas together and according to the shared logic of natural reason.” Narratives in the Upanishads feature characters questioning authority. The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks Kena “what” force makes something happen. The Katha Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita present stories where the student criticizes the teacher’s inferior answers. In the Shiva Purana, Shiva challenges Vishnu and Brahma. Doubt plays a recurring role in the Mahabharata. Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda presents criticism through Radha.

Main Traditions

The main traditions of Hinduism are –

(1) Denomination

(a) Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practicing Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. However, four main denominations are used in scientific studies: Shaivism, Shaktism, Smartism and Vaishnavism. These denominations differ mainly in the worshiped central deity, traditions and soteriological outlook. The designation of Hinduism, Lipner states, differs from that found in the world’s major religions because Hindu denominations are vague with individuals practicing more than one, and suggests the term “Hindu polycentrism”. There is no census data available on the demographic history or trends of traditions in Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in different traditions of Hinduism. According to Johnson and Grim’s 2010 estimate, the Vaishnava tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2%, and other traditions including neo- Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%. In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the greatest tradition of Hinduism.

(b) Vaishnavism is a devout religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. Adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, community-oriented, and practice devotionalism inspired by the “intimately loving, joyful, playful” Krishna and other avatars of Vishnu. These practices sometimes include communal dancing, singing of kirtans and bhajans with sound and music that some believe has meditative and spiritual powers. Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and Ramayana, along with the Vishnu-oriented Puranas, provide its theistic underpinnings. Philosophically, their beliefs are rooted in the dualism sub-schools of Vedantic Hinduism.

(c) Shaivism is a tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism and have several sub-schools. Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards non-dual monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga. Some Saivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga and seek to be one with Shiva within. Avatars are unusual, and some Shaivas imagine the god as half-male, half-female, as a union of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, where Shakti is seen as the consort of Shiva. Community celebrations include festivals and Vaishnava participation in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela. Shaivism was more commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in southern India.

(d) Shaktism focuses on the worship of the goddess Shakti or Devi as the cosmic mother and is particularly common in the northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted as in subtler forms as Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the force underlying the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices. Community celebrations include festivals, some of which involve processions and immersion of idols in the sea or other bodies of water.

(e) Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) classical period of Hinduism around the beginning of our era, when Hinduism emerged from the interplay between Brahmanism and local traditions. The Smarta tradition is in line with Advaita Vedanta and considers Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who regarded the worship of God with attributes (Saguna Brahman) as the path to the ultimate realization of God without attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge). The term Smartism is derived from the Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts. This Hindu sect practices philosophical jnana yoga, scripture study, reflection, a meditative path seeking an understanding of the unity of self with God.

(2) Ethnicity

Hinduism is traditionally a multi or poly ethnic religion. In the Indian subcontinent, it is widespread among many Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and other South Asian ethnic groups, such as the Meitei people (a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group in the northeastern Indian state of Manipur). In addition, in ancient times and the Middle Ages, Hinduism was the state religion in many Indian kingdoms of Asia, Greater India – from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the west and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the east (Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia). , part of the Philippines) – and only in the 15th century was it displaced by Buddhism and Islam almost everywhere, except for a few still Hindu minor Austronesian ethnic groups such as the Balinese and Tenggers in Indonesia and the Chams in Vietnam. A small community of Afghan Pashtuns who moved to India after partition also remain committed to Hinduism. The Kalash Indo-Aryan people of Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion that some authors characterize as a form of ancient Hinduism. There are many new ethnic Ghanaian Hindus in Ghana who converted to Hinduism through the works of Swami Ghanananda Saraswati and the Hindu Monastery of Africa From the early 20th century through the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914) Swami Vivekananda, AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and other missionaries, Hinduism gained some spread among western nations.

Scriptures of Hinduism

(1) The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are divided into two: Shruti and Smriti. Shruti is apaurusheya, “not man-made” but revealed to rishis (oracles) and considered to be of supreme authority, while smritis are man-made and of secondary authority. They are the two highest sources of dharma, the other two being Sista Achara/Sadachara (the conduct of noble people) and finally Atma tusti (“that which is pleasing to oneself”). Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and passed down verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed the Shastras with the epistemological and metaphysical theories of the six classical schools of Hinduism.

(2) Shruti (lit. what is heard) primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the oldest record of Hindu scriptures and are considered eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (rishis). There are four Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda was divided into four main types of texts – Samhitas (mantras and blessings), Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic offerings), Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices) and Upanishads. (a text dealing with meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the Karmakanda (ritual part), while the last two make up the Jnana Kanda (the knowledge part, dealing with spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).

(3) The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and have profoundly influenced various traditions. Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), only they are widely influential among Hindus, considered the biblical texts par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas continue to influence its thought and traditions. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominant role since their discovery. There are 108 Muktika Upanishads in Hinduism, of which 10 to 13 are variously counted by scholars as the major Upanishads. The most notable Smritis (“remembered”) are the Hindu epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is sometimes called Gitopanishad, then classified as Shruti (“heard”) because the content is Upanishadic. The Puranas, which began to be composed from ca. 300 CE onwards, contain extensive mythologies and are central to the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The Yoga Sutras are the classic text for the Hindu yoga tradition, which regained popularity in the 20th century.

(4) From the 19th century, Indian modernists reaffirmed the “Aryan origin” of Hinduism, “cleansed” Hinduism of its Tantric elements and exalted the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists such as Vivekananda see the Vedas as laws of the spiritual world that would still exist even if they had not been revealed to sages. Tantras are religious scriptures that foreground the feminine energy of the deity, which in its personified form has both a subtle and a fierce form. In the Tantric tradition, Radha, Parvati, Durga and Kali are worshiped symbolically and in their personified forms. The Agamas in Tantra refer to the authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti, while the Nigams refer to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva. In the Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.

Rituals of Hinduism

Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. Rituals vary greatly between regions, villages and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as dawn worship after bathing (usually at the family shrine and typically involves lighting a lamp and offering food before images of deities), recitation of religious scriptures, chanting of bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, meditation, chanting of mantras and more. Vedic rituals of fire sacrifice (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions such as Hindu wedding. Other important life-stage events such as post-death rituals include yajna and the chanting of Vedic mantras.

The words of the mantras are “sacred in themselves” and “do not constitute linguistic utterances”. Instead, as Klostermaier notes, they become magical sounds, “means to an end” when applied in Vedic rituals. In the Brahmanical perspective, sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered the “primordial rhythms of creation” that precede the forms to which they relate. By reciting them, the universe is regenerated, “reviving and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is maintained, the recitation of the mantras will be effective, regardless of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings.

Sadhana in Hinduism

Sadhana is derived from the root ‘sadh-‘ meaning ‘to achieve’ and denotes a means of realizing spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own specific ideas about sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from slavery. They differ in what causes slavery, how a person can be freed from this slavery, and who or what can guide them on this journey.

Life Cycle Rites of Passage

The major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra, rites of passage) in Hinduism. Rites of passage are not mandatory and vary in detail by gender, community and region. The Gautama Dharmasutras composed around the middle of the 1st millennium BCE list 48 sanskaras, while the Gryhasutra and other texts composed a century later list between 12 and 16 samskaras. The list of samskaras in Hinduism includes both external rituals, such as those marking the birth of a child and the naming ceremony of a child, as well as internal rituals of resolution and ethics, such as compassion for all living beings and a positive attitude. The main traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (ritual before the fetus begins to move and kick in the womb), Simantonnajana (parting the hair of the pregnant woman, baby), Jatakarman (ceremony celebrating the new born baby), Namakarana (naming the child), Nishkramana (the child’s first trip from home to the world), Annaprashana (the first feeding of the child with solid food), Chudakarana (the child’s first haircut, tonsure), Karnavedha (piercing the ear), Vidyarambha (the beginning of the child with knowledge), Upanayana ( entrance to school ceremony), Keshanta and Ritushuddhi (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation), Vivaha (wedding), Vratas (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for adults, burial for a child). Currently, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these samskaras are observed; in some cases, other regional rites of passage such as Sraddha (the ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.

Bhakti of Hinduism: (1) Bhakti refers to devotion, participation and love for a personal god or representative god on the part of the devotee. Bhakti-marga is considered one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha in Hinduism. Other paths left to the choice of the Hindu are Jnana-marga (path of knowledge), Karma-marga (path of works), Raja-marga (path of contemplation and meditation). Bhakti is practiced in many ways, from reciting mantras, japas (incantations) to individual private prayers in a home shrine or temple before a murti or sacred image of a deity. Hindu temples and home altars are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism. While many visit the temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at the home altar, usually a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus. One form of daily worship is the aarti or “supplication”, a ritual in which a flame is sacrificed and “accompanied by a song of praise”. Notable aartis include Om Jai Jagdish Hare, a Hindi prayer to Vishnu, and Sukhakarta Dukhaharta, a Marathi prayer to Ganesha. Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to “human exemplars”. For example, Aarti is offered to Hanuman, a devotee of God, in many temples, including Balaji temples, where he is an incarnation of Vishnu as the primary deity. In Swaminarayan temples and home shrines, aarti is offered to Swaminarayan, who is considered by followers to be the supreme God.

(2) Other personal and community practices include puja, as well as aarti, kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are recited or poems are sung by a group of devotees. While the choice of deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, the cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman. Bhakti-marga, says Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining the state of mind, knowing God, participating in God, and internalizing God. While bhakti practices are a popular and easily observed aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti or believe in a god with attributes (saguna Brahman). Concurrent Hindu practices include belief in a god without attributes (nirguna Brahman) and a god within.

Festivals of Hinduism

Hindu festivals are ceremonies that connect individual and social life with dharma. Hinduism has many holidays throughout the year where the dates are determined by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either a full moon (Holi) or a new moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes. Some festivals occur only regionally and celebrate local traditions, while a few like Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu. Festivals usually celebrate events from Hinduism, connote spiritual themes and celebrate aspects of human relationships, such as the sister-brother bond of the Raksha Bandhan (or Bhai Dooj) festival. The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and celebrations include regional themes, traditional agriculture, local art, family gatherings, Puja rituals and feasts. Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include: Ashadhi Ekadashi, Bonalu, Chhath, Dashain, Diwali or Tihar or Deepawali, Durga Puja, Dussehra, Ganesh Chaturthi, Gowri Habba, Gudi Padwa, Holi, Karva Chauth, Kartika Purnima, Krishna Janmashtami, Maha Shivaratri, Makar Sankranti, Navaratri, Onam, Pongal, Radhashtami, Raksha Bandhan, Rama Navami, Ratha Yatra, Sharad Purnima, Shigmo, Thaipusam, Ugadi, Vasant Panchami, Vishu

Pilgrimage of Hinduism

(1) Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so even today. Places of pilgrimage are called Tirtha, Kshetra, Gopitha or Mahalaya. The process or journey associated with Tirtha is called Tirtha-yatra. According to the Hindu text Skanda Purana, there are three types of Tirtha: Jangam Tirtha is a moving sadhu, rishi, guru; Sthawar Tirtha is stationary in place, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is the seat of the mind of truth, love, patience, compassion, gentle speech, the Self. Tirtha-yatra is, says Knut A. Jacobsen, anything of salvific value to a Hindu, and includes places of pilgrimage, such as mountains or forests or seashores or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or states of mind.

(2) Pilgrimage places of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas. Most Puranas include large sections on the Tirtha Mahatmya along with tourist guides describing sacred places and places to visit. Varanasi (Benares, Kashi), Rameswaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti Pitha are mentioned in these texts as particularly holy places along with their geographical locations. where great rivers meet (sangam) or merge with the sea. The Kumbh Mela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the sun festival Makar Sankranti. This pilgrimage rotates three years apart between four places: Prayagraj at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Haridwar near the source of the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river, and Nashik on the banks of the Godavari river. It is one of the largest mass pilgrimages in the world, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people. At this event, they pray to the sun and bathe in the river, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankar.

(3) Some pilgrimages are part of a Vrata (vow) that a Hindu may make for any number of reasons. It can mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a child, or as part of a ceremony, such as a child’s first haircut, or after recovery from an illness. It can also be, says Eck, the result of answered prayers. An alternative reason for Tirtha for some Hindus is to honor a wish or in memory of a loved one after their death. This may include scattering their cremation ashes in the Tirtha area in a stream, river or sea to honor the wishes of the dead. The journey to Tirtha, some Hindu texts claim, helps to overcome the grief of loss. Other reasons for a tirtha in Hinduism are to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by traveling to famous temples or bathing in rivers such as the Ganges. Tirtha was one of the recommended means in the Hindu tradition to deal with remorse and to repent for inadvertent mistakes and intentional sins. The proper procedure for the pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts. The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from walking or part of the journey on foot, and that the use of a means of transport is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.

Hindu Culture

The term “Hindu culture” refers to the intended aspects of culture that relate to religion, such as festivals and dress codes followed by Hindus, which may be inspired primarily by the culture of India and Southeast Asia.

(1) Architecture

Hindu architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, houses, markets, gardens and town planning as described in Hindu texts. Architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include Vastu shastras, Shilpa Shastras, Brihat Samhita, architectural sections of Puranas and Agamas and regional texts like Manasara among others. By far the most important, distinctive and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are Hindu temples, with an architectural tradition that left surviving examples in stone, brick and rock architecture dating back to the Gupta Empire. These architectures were influenced by ancient Persian and Hellenistic architecture. Much less secular Hindu architecture has survived into the modern era, such as palaces, houses and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide insight into early secular architecture in India. Studies of Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focused on Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture, particularly in northern and western India, due to their relative abundance. In other areas of India, especially in the south, Hindu architecture continued to flourish until the 16th century, such as the temples, ruined cities, and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara empire and the Nayakas. Secular architecture has never conflicted with religious in India and it is sacred architecture such as those found in Hindu temples that have been inspired by and adapted from secular. Furthermore, says Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, torans and madapams that miniature versions of secular architecture can be found.

(2) Art

Hindu art includes artistic traditions and styles culturally associated with Hinduism and has a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

(3) Calendar

(a) The Hindu calendar, Panchanga or Panjika is one of the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with other regional variations for social and Hindu religious purposes. They adopt a similar basic concept for measuring time based on the sidereal year for the solar cycle and adjustments to the lunar cycles every three years, but differ in the relative emphasis on the lunar cycle or solar cycle and the names of the months and when they consider the New Year. start. Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and well-known Hindu calendars are the Shalivahana Shaka (based on King Shalivahana, also the Indian national calendar) found in the Deccan region of South India, and the Vikram Samvat (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of India – both of which emphasize the lunar cycle. Their new year begins in the spring. In areas such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and called the Tamil calendar (although the Tamil calendar uses the names of the months as in the Hindu calendar) and the Malayalam calendar, and these originate in the second half of the 1st millennium AD. The Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchangam, which is also known as Panjika in Eastern India.

(b) The ancient conceptual design of the Hindu calendar can also be found in the Hebrew calendar, the Chinese calendar and the Babylonian calendar, but it is different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike the Gregorian calendar, which adds extra days to the month to adjust for the discrepancy between the twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and the nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month but inserts one extra full month. every 32–33 months to ensure that festivals and rituals related to crops fall in the appropriate season. Hindu calendars have been used in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times and remain in use by Hindus worldwide, especially for determining the date of Hindu festivals. Early Buddhist communities in India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later the Vikrami calendar, and then the local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to the lunar system. The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, ancient Jain traditions followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems attempted to use the lives of the Buddha and Mahavira as their reference points. The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and the zodiac system. It is also used for observing auspicious days of deities and fasting occasions like Ekadashi.

Varnas in Hinduism

Hindu society was divided into four classes, called varnas. They are the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests; kshatriyas: warriors and kings; vaishyas: farmers and traders; and Shudras: servants and laborers. The Bhagavad Gita associates varna with an individual’s duty (svadharma), innate nature (svabhava), and natural inclinations (Guna). Manusmriti categorizes various castes.

A certain mobility and flexibility within the varṇas challenges the charge of social discrimination in the caste system, as several sociologists have pointed out, although some other scholars disagree. Scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is part of scripturally sanctioned Hinduism or social custom. And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was created by the British colonial regime. A person who renounces knowledge is usually called a Varnatita or “beyond all varṇas” in Vedantic works. A bhiksu is advised not to be encumbered by the caste of the family from which he begs for food. Scholars like Adi Sankara assert that Brahman not only transcends all varṇas, but a man who identifies with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.

Yoga in Hinduism

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yoga) taught by the sages to achieve this goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline that trains the body, mind and consciousness for health, peace and spiritual insight. Texts devoted to yoga include the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Bhagavad Gita, and as their philosophical and historical basis the Upanishads. Yoga is the vehicle and the four main margas (paths) of Hinduism are: bhakti yoga (the path of love and devotion), karma yoga (the path of right action), raja yoga (the path of meditation) and jnana yoga (the path of wisdom). by others, according to their inclination and understanding. Practicing one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of yoga as exercise (traditionally Hatha yoga) has a contentious relationship with Hinduism.

symbolism of Hinduism

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols of Hinduism derive their meaning from scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (representing Brahman and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other symbols such as the swastika represent auspiciousness and the Tilaka (literally seed) on the forehead – considered to be the location of the spiritual third eye. a ceremonial welcome, blessing, or participation in a ritual or rite of passage. An elaborate Tilaka with lines can also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetrical mandala designs, objects, lingam, idols are part of the symbolic iconography in Hinduism.

Ahimsa in Hinduism

Hindus advocate the practice of ahimsa (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to pervade all beings, including plants and non-human animals. The term ahimsa appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata, and ahimsa is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-control) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Some Hindus, such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in areas such as Bali and Nepal, practice animal sacrifice. The sacrificed animal is eaten as a ritual meal. In contrast, Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice. The principle of non-violence towards animals has been so thoroughly accepted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon and historically reduced to a marginal practice.

Food habits in Hinduism

In keeping with ahimsa, many Hindus adopt vegetarianism to respect the higher forms of life. Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (including followers of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs range between 20% and 42%, while the rest are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. Those who eat meat seek the Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production and dislike Halal (slow bleeding) because they believe that the quick death method reduces the animal’s suffering. Dietary habits vary by region, Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in the Himalayan regions or river delta regions regularly eat meat and fish. Some avoid meat on certain festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who eat meat almost always abstain from beef. Hinduism specifically considers the Bos indicus sacred. The cow is traditionally identified as a nurturer and mother figure in Hindu society, and Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of selfless giving, selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance. There are many Hindu groups that continue to follow a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some follow a diet without meat, eggs and seafood. Food affects the body, mind and spirit in the Hindu faith. Hindu texts such as Sandilya Upanishad and Svatmarama recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous self-restraint). The Bhagavad Gita connects the body and mind with the food one consumes in verses 17.8 to 17.10.

Institutions of Hinduism

Institutions of Hinduism are:

(1) Temple

A Hindu temple is the house of a god. It is a space and structure designed to unite human beings and gods, filled with symbolism expressing the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The temple includes all the elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest tower or dome representing Mount Meru – a reminder of the seat of Brahma and the center of the spiritual universe, carvings and iconography symbolically representing dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma. The layout, motifs, plan and construction process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolism and reflect beliefs and values ​​ingrained in various Hindu schools. Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many (not all) Hindus, as well as landmarks for art, annual festivals, rites of passage, and social celebrations. Hindu temples come in many styles, in different locations, use different construction methods, and are tailored to different deities and regional beliefs. The two main styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram style found in South India and the Nagara style found in North India. Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples. However, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, basic ideas, symbolism and themes. Many temples have one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (centre of the temple), below the main tower, serve as the focal point (darsana, view) in a Hindu temple. In larger temples, the central space is usually surrounded by an ambulatory where devotees can walk and ritually circumambulate Purusha (Brahman), the universal essence.

(2) Asrama

Traditionally, the life of a Hindu is divided into four Asramas (phases or stages of life; another meaning includes monastery). The four ashrams are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (domestic), Vanaprastha (retiree) and Sannyasa (renunciation). Brahmacharya represents the stage of life of an undergraduate student. Grihastha refers to the married life of an individual with the responsibilities of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one’s children, and leading a family-centered dharmic social life. The Grihastha stage begins with a Hindu wedding and has been considered the most important of all stages in a sociological context because Hindus at this stage not only followed a virtuous life but produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life as well as descendants that continued humanity. Vanaprastha is the stage of retirement when one hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, assumes the role of advisor and gradually withdraws from the world. The Sannyasa stage means renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful possessions or home (the ascetic state), and focused on moksha, peace and a simple spiritual life. The ashram system was one aspect of the concept of dharma in Hinduism. Combined with the four right goals of human life (Purusartha), the ashram system has traditionally focused on providing a Hindu fulfilling life and spiritual liberation. Although these stages are usually sequential, any person can enter the sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage. Sannyasa is not religiously obligatory in Hinduism and the elderly can live with their families.

(3) Monasticism

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyasa) in an attempt to attain liberation (moksha) or some other form of spiritual perfection. Monks commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material affairs, meditation and spiritual contemplation. A Hindu monk is called a Sanyasi, Sadhu or Swami. A woman renunciate is called a Sanyasini. Renunciates are held in high esteem in Hindu society because of their simple lifestyle of ahimsa and devotion to spiritual liberation (moksha) – considered the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism. Some monks live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place depending on donated food and charity for their needs.

Demographics of Hinduism

Hinduism is the major religion in India. Hinduism is followed by approximately 79.8% of the country’s 1.21 billion people (2011 census) (966 million followers). India is home to 94% of the world’s Hindu population. Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million). A significant Hindu population is also present in Pakistan (4 million). Most of the Indonesian Tenggerese in Java and the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of Cham in Ninh Thuan Province. Hinduism is the third fastest growing religion in the world after Islam and Christianity, with a projected growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050. Percentage of Hindus by country.

Countries with the largest proportion of Hindus

Nepal – 81.3%, India – 79.8%, Mauritius – 48.5%, Guyana – 28.4%, Fiji – 27.9%, Bhutan – 22.6%, Suriname – 22.3%, Trinidad and Tobago – 18.2% – 18.2% Qatar – 13.8%, Sri Lanka – 12.6%, Bahrain – 9.8%, Bangladesh – 8.5%, Réunion – 6 .8%, United Arab Emirates – 6.6%, Malaysia – 6.3%, Kuwait – 6%, Oman – 5.5%, Singapore – 5%, Indonesia – 3.86%, Australia – 2.7% , New Zealand – 2.62%,  Seychelles – 2.4%, Pakistan – 2.14%. Demographically, Hinduism is the third-largest religion in the world after Christianity and Islam.

Persecutions of Hindus

Hindus have experienced historical religious persecution, ongoing religious persecution, and systematic violence. These happen in the form of forced conversions, documented massacres, demolition and desecration of temples. Historical persecution of Hindus occurred under Muslim rulers as well as by Christian missionaries. In the Mughal period, Hindus were forced to pay jizya. In Goa, the Inquisition of the Portuguese colonists of 1560 is also considered one of the most brutal persecutions of Hindus. Between 200,000 and one million people, including Muslims and Hindus, were killed during the partition of India. In modern times, Hindus face discrimination in many parts of the world and also face persecution and forced conversion in many countries, especially in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Fiji and others.

Conversion Debate in Hinduism

(1) In modern times religious conversion to Hinduism has been a controversial topic. Some say that the concept of missionary conversion, whatever it is, is anathema to Hindu precepts. Unlike ethnic religions that exist almost exclusively among, for example, the Japanese (Shintoism), the Chinese (Taoism), or the Jews (Judaism), Hinduism in India and Nepal is known to be widespread among many, both Indo-Aryan and non-Aryan ethnic groups. Moreover, religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside of India. Traders and merchants from India, especially from the Indian subcontinent, carried their religious ideas, leading to religious conversions to Hinduism outside India. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, Hinduism was the state religion in many Asian kingdoms, the so-called Great India: from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the west and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the east (Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, partly the Philippines) and only in the 15th century was almost everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam. Therefore, it seems quite natural for modern Hindu preaching in the world.

(2) In India, archaeological and textual evidence, such as the 2nd century BC Column of Heliodorus, indicates that Greeks and other foreigners converted to Hinduism. The debate about proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent and began in the 19th century. Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements like the Arya Samaj started the Shuddhi movement to proselytize and convert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those like the Brahmo Samaj proposed Hinduism as a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members into their fold, while other leaders of various Hindu schools have stated that due to the intense activities of proselytizing from missionary Islam and Christianity, the view that “there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism” needs to be re-adopted. – investigated. The appropriateness of conversion from major religions to Hinduism and vice versa has been and remains an actively debated topic in India, Nepal and Indonesia.

Jainism and Hinduism

Hinduism and Jainism are two ancient religions that originated in India. There are several differences and similarities between the two religions. The gods, temples, rituals, and various other components of Hinduism differ from those of Jainism. Many scholars often believe that the Jain religion is older than Hinduism. This is because the concepts of Hinduism were later constructs of the colonizers.

(1) Similarities of Hinduism and Jainism

Both Hinduism and Jainism originated in India; hence both religions share similarities in their culture, languages ​​and traditions. Both religions talk about the concepts of karma and reincarnation. They may have different theories, but the basis is the same. Both religions believe in idol worship. Both religions talk about vegetarianism and meditation. Many Hindu scriptures promote vegetarianism; however, in Jainism, eating vegetarian food is mandatory. The Hindu Vedic Puranas have an account of the first Tirthankara of Jainism, Lord Rishabhdeva. And Jain texts have description of Lord Rama. Both religions have their versions of the great epics Mahabharata and Ramayana.

(2) Differences between Jainism and Hinduism as follows:

(a) Number of Followers

Followers of Jainism have declined over the years as some Jains now consider themselves Hindus. On the other hand, Hinduism is considered to be the third largest religion in the world.

(b) Belief in Creator

Hindus believe in deities or gods like Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva. They believe that these gods created the universe, save the universe, and punish anyone who does wrong in the universe. On the other hand, Jains do not believe in an almighty god and that the universe itself is more powerful than the laws that the universe has.

(c) Animal sacrifices

Jains do not practice animal sacrifices as they value all forms of life through non-violence. On the other hand, Hindus allow the concept of violence as long as it can help one attain enlightenment.

(d) Concept of Moksha

Hindus believe that Moksha or liberation occurs when a soul unites with its Universal Soul, resulting in eternal residence in Vishnu’s Paradise, or a tranquil universe said to take place in Siddhabhomi.

(e) Concept of Karma

For Hindus, karma is an invisible force that happens to people in the temporary world or samsara and depends on words, thoughts and deeds, whether good or bad; while for Jains, karma is a physical force that can exist everywhere in the universe, particles of which can stick to people’s soul depending on their actions.

(f) Concept of Universe

In Jainism, the universe is more powerful than any creator, which is contrary to the Hindu belief that the universe is made up of the creator Brahma.

Hinduism and Buddhism

Despite the fundamental differences between the two religions, Hinduism and Buddhism have influenced each other in many ways. The Buddhist concept of non-harm and compassion for all living beings took deep roots in Indian soil, while Mahayana Buddhism evolved from traditional Indian methods of devotional worship. Buddhism influenced the growth and development of Indian art and architecture and contributed richly to the practice of breathing and meditation in achieving mindfulness and higher states of consciousness. Hindu Tantra influenced the emergence and development of Vajrayana Buddhism, which became popular in Tibet.

(A) Similarities

Similarities between Hinduism and Buddhism are as follows:

(1) The World

Both Hinduism and Buddhism emphasize the illusory nature of the world and the role of karma and desire-driven actions in keeping beings bound to the cycle of birth and death.

(2) Slavery and Suffering

According to the Buddha, desire is the main cause of suffering and the elimination of desire in all its forms leads to the cessation of suffering. A similar view is held by almost all Hindu philosophical schools and sects. Hindu texts such as the Upanishads (Isa), the Vedas, the Tantras, and the Bhagavad Gita suggest that actions accompanied by desire and attachment to worldly things are responsible for our slavery and suffering, while performing actions as a sacrifice without desiring their fruits should be the result of our liberation.

(3) Doctrine

Both Hinduism and Buddhism are dharmic religions. Dharma is central to both, though its meaning and purpose are different. Both religions believe in the concept of karma, the cycle of birth and death (samsara), reincarnation or rebirth of beings (or souls) according to their previous karma.

(4) Virtues

Both emphasize the importance of cultivating compassion, non-violence and selfless service to all living beings to attain liberation.

(5) Heavens and Hells

Both believe in the existence of several hells and heavens or higher and lower worlds that beings can enter after death according to their desires and past deeds. However, they also believe that it delays liberation and does not solve suffering.

(6) Gods

Both believe in the existence of gods and celestial beings in different planes. The names of several deities like Indra, Brahma, Yama, Varuna etc. are also common.

(7) Practices

Both believe in the importance of certain spiritual practices to attain liberation such as yoga, practice of meditation, mindful breathing, concentration, mindfulness, cultivation of certain bhavs or states of meditative absorption (jhanas) and so on. .

(8) Purity and Character

Both believe in detachment, renunciation of worldly life, non-possessiveness and cultivation of virtues like non-violence, truthfulness, taking vows, etc., as prerequisites for attaining liberation.

(9) Desire

Both regard desire as the main cause of suffering and renunciation of desire as the main solution to liberation.

(10) Emptiness

The Advaita philosophy of Hinduism is similar in some ways to the Shunyavada (emptiness) theory of Buddhism.

(11) Impermanence

Both believe in the impermanence (anitya) of the world as the cause of aging, disease, death and decay and the suffering that results from them. They also think that apparent reality or objective reality (not-self) is a temporary phenomenon or illusion.

(12) Tantra

Buddhism and Hinduism have their own versions of Tantra and ancient shamanic practices. Both have traditional right-handed and unconventional left-handed ritual practices.

(13) Origin

Both originated and evolved in the Indian subcontinent. The founder of Buddhism was a Hindu prince who became the Buddha. Buddhism is ancient India’s greatest gift to the world. For almost two millennia, Buddhist teachings prevailed in many parts of the world and influenced the culture and civilization there.

(14) Symbolism of Death

Both Hinduism and Buddhism recognize death as an inevitable and unavoidable aspect of life. Both personify Death as a deity and refer to him as Kala, Yama, Mara, etc. Death is equated with time in both traditions.

(15) Liberation

Both believe that liberation, not rebirth or heavenly life, should be the highest goal and the best and permanent solution to the problem of suffering and slavery.

(16) Cosmology

The cosmologies of both religions have several features in common. Both recognize a four-level universe of many worlds and spheres. Hinduism recognizes an underworld, a mortal world, a middle realm, and the immortal world of Brahman. Buddhism recognizes the underworld, the earth, the middle region of the gods and heavens, and the highest level of the Brahma lokas.

(17) The Universe

Both religions regard the earth as the center of the universe, resting on Mount Meru, surrounded by seven concentric rings of high mountains and seven oceans, with the asura hells below and the deva worlds above. Both regard the Indian subcontinent as a sacred land and call it Jambudvipa.

(18) Subtle worlds

Both believe in the existence of gross and subtle worlds. Gentle words can be experienced by people in meditation.

(19) Supernatural Powers

Both believe in the human potential to attain supernatural or divine powers and to retain and recall impressions from past lives.

(20) Theology

Both religions are liberation theologies. They consider liberation (moksha or nirvana) from the cycle of birth and death to be the highest meaning of human life.

(21) Diversity

Both Hinduism and Buddhism have numerous schools, sects and sub-sects. With some exceptions, both religions approve of the ritual and spiritual worship of deities. They also have many identical beliefs and opinions regarding the nature of existence, reality, true knowledge, states of consciousness, etc.

(B) Differences

The following are some of the differences between Hinduism and Buddhism :

(1) Founder

Hinduism is not founded by any prophet, seer, or guru. Buddhism was founded by Buddha. Hinduism is not an organized religion. In many ways, Buddhism is well organized into three divisions, namely Buddha, Sangha, and Dharma.

(2) Scriptures

Hinduism believes in the inviolability and supremacy of the Vedas. Buddhists respect the teachings of the Buddha, especially those relating to dharma, or the four noble truths of Buddhism, and the eightfold path of Buddhism, but do not believe in the inviolability of any particular scripture.

(3) Self and not Self

Buddhism does not believe in the existence of eternal and indestructible souls or a first-cause or creator God. Hinduism believes in the existence of Atman, the immortal and unchanging individual self, and Brahman, the all-pervading, all-powerful Supreme Self.

(4) Buddha

In Hinduism, Buddha is an incarnation of Mahavishnu, one of the gods of the Hindu Trinity. In Buddhism, the Buddha is the supreme deity. Buddhists do not recognize any Hindu god as equal or superior to Buddha.

(5) Devas

In Hinduism, gods and goddesses (devas) are immortal. In Buddhism, they are subject to change and decay, including those who bear the same name as the gods of Hinduism, such as Indra, Brahma, Varuna, etc. They live for millions of years but are not immortal.

(6) Worship

The original Buddhism as taught by the Buddha is known as Theravada Buddhism or Hinayana Buddhism. His followers do not ritually worship the Buddha or his images. They also do not believe in the idea of ​​bodhisattvas. Central to Hinduism is the ritual worship of gods and goddesses. However, some sects of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism, ritually worship forms and images of the Buddha.

(7) Goals

Hinduism recognizes four main goals (Purusharthas) of human life, namely dharma (religious duty), artha (wealth or material possessions), kama (desires and passions), and moksha (salvation). Buddhism considers the overcoming of suffering and the attainment of nirvana as the only meaning of human life. Therefore, it recognizes only two goals, namely the study and practice of Dharma (Buddha’s teachings) and liberation (Nirvana).

(8) Renunciation

Hinduism recognizes four ashramas, or stages, of human life and encourages householders to practice renunciation (sannyasa) after fulfilling all worldly duties. It is not observed in Buddhism. Buddhists can enter the Sangha at any time, even as young children, depending on their spiritual readiness. In both traditions, however, people have the choice to become renunciates according to their inclinations or at the behest of their parents or teachers.

(9) Monasticism

Buddhists who take vows and enter monastic life organize themselves into an order (Sangha) of monks. They live in groups and observe strict monastic discipline according to a set of well-defined and codified rules. Hinduism is not a monastic religion. It is essentially a religion of the individual.

(10) Bodhisattvas

Buddhism believes in the concept of bodhisattvas, or spiritually perfect beings who put aside their salvation to help others in their suffering. Hinduism does not have a similar concept.

(111) Status of Gods

The gods of Hinduism are very powerful and can be worshiped as the supreme gods of creation. They play an important role in ensuring the order and regularity of the world. They are also ritually worshiped and sacrificed. Buddhist gods do not enjoy the same exalted status or popularity.

(12) Scope

Taking refuge with the Buddha, joining the Sangha, and following the Dhamma are the three basic requirements in Eightfold Path Buddhism. You will not find a similar approach that is widely practiced in Hinduism. It offers followers many options and alternatives to work for their liberation.

(13) Karma and Rebirth

Although both religions believe in karma and rebirth, they differ in the way these principles work and determine the fate of beings on earth. In Hinduism, it is the embodied self (Jivatma) that is trapped in samsara and undergoes transmigration, and that needs liberation through self-purification. In Buddhism, it is a being (jiva or non-self) who is caught in samsara and who needs to achieve nirvana through self-transformation and dissipation.

(14) Life after death

Both religions also differ concerning the afterlife. Hindus believe that after death, the soul travels to the ancestral world and remains there. In Buddhism, there is no reference to an ancestral world but several hells and heavens where beings can go and remain after death.

(15) State of Liberation

Hinduism believes that after attaining liberation, the individual self becomes immortal. He can either merge with the Supreme Self or remain forever in the immortal world. Buddhists believe that after attaining nirvana, a being enters an indescribable state of non-becoming and non-being.

Conclusion

Hinduism is a major world religion originating in the Indian subcontinent and comprising several different systems of philosophy, belief, and ritual. Although the name Hinduism is relatively new, having been coined by British writers in the early decades of the 19th century, it refers to a rich cumulative tradition of texts and practices, some dating back to the 2nd millennium BCE or perhaps earlier. If the Indus Valley Civilization (3rd–2nd millennium BCE) was the earliest source of these traditions, as some scholars claim, then Hinduism is the oldest living religion on Earth. Its many sacred texts in Sanskrit and vernacular languages ​​served as a vehicle for spreading the religion to other parts of the world, although ritual and the visual and performing arts also played a significant role in its transmission. From about the 4th century AD, Hinduism had a dominant presence in Southeast Asia that lasted for more than 1,000 years. In the early 2000s, Hinduism had nearly a billion followers worldwide and was the religion of about 80 percent of India’s population. Despite its global presence, however, it is best understood through its many distinctive regional manifestations.

(FAQ) Questions and Answers about Hinduism