Sixteen Mahajanapadas List, Capitals, Current Location

The sixteen Mahajanapadas were ancient Indian territorial and political entities that existed during the Vedic period and the early stages of Buddhism, around the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. These republics and kingdoms were scattered throughout the Indian subcontinent and played a key role in shaping the early history of the region.

Some of the most notable Mahajanapadas included Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Kashi, each with its own distinct culture, government, and territorial boundaries. Magadha in particular stood out as a powerful and influential kingdom that later gave rise to the Maurya Empire under Chandragupta Maurya.

These Mahajanapadas engaged in mutual trade, warfare, and diplomacy and left behind a rich historical and archaeological legacy. Their stories and interactions are recorded in ancient texts such as the Buddhist stories Jataka and Mahabharata.

The emergence and development of the sixteen Mahajanapadas marked a significant chapter in ancient Indian history, reflecting the dynamism and diversity of the early political landscape of the subcontinent.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Historical facts	Sixteen Mahajanapadas
Kashi	Varanasi
Koshala	Sarasvati
Anga	Champa
Magadha	Patliputra
Chedi	Shuktimati
Gandhara	Takshashila

Introduction The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Janapada literally means the place where people put their feet. However, these were permanent settlements of agricultural communities of the later Vedic age. In the early K phases, these settlements were named after the dominant Kshatriya clans in the area. For example, the areas around Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh were known as Kuru and Panchala jana-padas. The consolidation of these Kshatriya clans, which H was at war with each other, and the further expansion of agrarian space led to the formation of larger territorial units, which in the Buddhist age came to be regarded as mahajana-padas. The incorporation of the Jana-padas by the larger and more powerful rulers of the Mahayana-padas led to political conflicts between the rulers which later resulted in the establishment of the Magadha Empire. This development led to a gradual decline in the power of the gana-rajyas.

Sixteen Mahajanpadas

The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya provides a list of the sixteen mahajanapadas existing at the time of the Gautam Buddha. They were: Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja. Another Buddhist text, the Mahavastu, provides a list of sixteen mahajanapadas. However, it excludes Gandhara and Kamboja and replaces them with Sibi and Dasara in Punjab and Central India. The list in the Jain text, the Bhagavati Sutra, includes Vanga and Malaya.

Kashi

• (i) The kingdom of Kashi with an area of ​​300 miles was the most powerful in the beginning. It had its capital at Varanasi also known as Ketumati, Surundhana, Sudassana, Brahmavaddhana, Pushpavati, Ramma, and Molini. The name Varanasi is derived from the two small streams Varuna and Asi between which the city was located. Kashi was known for its cotton textiles and horse market.
• (ii) Excavations at the Varanasi site known as Rajghat have not yielded evidence of urbanization in the 6th century BCE. It emerged as the capital around 450 BC. The name Kashi is derived from the orange-brown robes of Buddhist monks called kashaya in Sanskrit, which were made in Kashi. This suggests that Kashi emerged as a cloth manufacturing center and market during the Buddha’s time. Kashi, Kosala, and Magadha were constantly at war with each other. Sometimes Kashi extended its control over Kosala and sometimes Kosala conquered Kashi, but by the time of the Buddha Kashi had lost its political prominence.
• (iii) The early history of Kashi begins with the Paippalada recension of the Atharvaveda, which mentions Kashi, i.e. the people of Kashi. The Jatakas very often refer to the failure of heirs in Varanasi or the deposing of princes in favor of more competent rulers taken from other families. “It is clear that tradition does not regard the rulers of Kashi as belonging to one and the same dynasty. Some of them came from Magadha, while many were probably of Videhan origin.” This shows the struggle for the possession of Kashi between the contemporary kingdoms. One version of Rama, the legend contained in the Dasharatha Jataka, mentions Dasharatha, Rama, etc. as the king of Kashi and not of Ayodhya. A large number of Kashi rulers were nicknamed Brahmadatta. In the Gangamala Jataka King Udaya of Varanasi is addressed by the Pacceka Buddha as Brahmadatta, which is clearly stated as a kulanama or family designation. Ashvasena, the father of the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism, is also considered to be one of the first kings of Kashi. The Buddha also gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. The Upanishads mention that a prince called Ajatashatru and Dhritarashtra were also kings of Kashi. However, the historicity of many kings ruling from Kashi cannot be confirmed. This kingdom eventually became part of the Magadha Empire.

Kosala (Kosala)

• (i) The kingdom of Kosala, situated between Gomati (western boundary), Sarpika or Syandika (southern boundary), Sadanira (eastern boundary), and the Nepalese hills (northern boundary), was one of the most important kingdoms in the 6th century BCE. The assimilation of many smaller principalities and clans contributed to the prosperity and power of this kingdom. The Shakyas of Kapilavastu were one of them and another important clan was the Kalams of Keshaputta. Majjhimea Nikaya calls Buddha Kosalan.
• (ii) Kosala contained three major cities: Ayodhya, Saketa, and Shravasti, besides a number of smaller cities like Setavya and Ukkattha. Saketa is often thought to be the same as Ayodhya, but according to Rhys Davids, both cities are mentioned as existing at the time of the Buddha. They were probably twin cities. Shravasti is identified with Sahet-Mahet on Achiravati or Rapti. For most of the time, the Sarayu River divided this kingdom into Uttara-Kosala and Dakshina Kosala. Sarasvati was the capital of Uttara Kosala and Kushavati was the capital of Dakshina Kosala.
• (iii) After the rise of the monarchy, the autonomy of many ruling clans, including the Shakyas, was undermined. We get the names Hiranyagarbha, Mahakoshal, Prasenjita, and Shuddhodana as the rulers of Kosala who ruled from Ayodhya, Saketa, Kapilavastu, and Shravasti. Towards the end of the 6th century BC, the Pasendi, or Prasenjita established a unified Kosalan monarchy. A contemporary of the Buddha, Prasenjita was educated in Taxila and was able to make Kosala a formidable kingdom. He was also responsible for the demise of Kashi as an independent kingdom. Later, Kashi became a major bone of contention between Kosala and Magadha.

Anga

• (i) Anga was situated to the east of Magadha. This roughly included the modern Bhagalpur and Munger districts of Bihar. At some point, it may also have included Magadha as the Vidhura Pandita Jataka speaks of Rajagriz as an Anga city. The kingdom could reach as far as the sea shores in the east. The Kathasaritsagara says that Vitankapura, the city of the Angas, was situated on the shore of the sea.
• (ii) Champa, the capital of Anga, was situated at the confluence of the river of the same name (present-day Chandan) and the Ganga. According to Cunningham, there are still two villages near Bhagalpur named Champanagar and Champapur which probably represent the actual site of the ancient city. The ancient name of Champa was Malini. The city of Champa was built by Maha Govinda and in the Jataka stories the city is also known as Kala Champa. Champa was one of the six great cities of India at the time of the Buddha. It was known for its wealth and business activities. Traders with Champa went to Suvarnabhumi for business. Emigrants from Champa to southern China Annanu and Cochin are believed to have named their settlement after this city. Other important cities in Anga included Asvapura and Bhadrika. The Buddha is said to have camped on the banks of a tank called Gaggala Pokhara, built by a queen of Anga called Gaggara. According to the Mahabharata, Anga was named after its king Anga.
• (iii) The earliest mention of Anga is found in Atharvaveda and Ramayana gives a legend about the origin of this janapada. Madana or Ananga, the god of love, is said to have fled to this region after the anger of Shiva, where he threw away his body (anga). Hence this place came to be known by the name of Anga. In contemporary texts, Anga was related to many legendary kings such as Dhatarattha, Dadhivahana, etc. According to Jain tradition, Chandana or Chandrabala, the daughter of Dadhivahana, was the first woman to embrace Jainism shortly after Mahavira attained kaivalya.
• (iv) The King of Anga had friendly relations with Kaushambi. Sri Harsha speaks of an Anga ruler named Dridhavarman who gave his daughter in marriage to Udayana and secured his help in regaining his throne from King Vatsa. Around the middle of the sixth century BCE, Anga was annexed by Magadha.

Magadha

• (i) Magadha roughly corresponds to the present districts of Patna and Gaya in present-day Bihar. It was placed between the Ganga (North). Son (west), Vindhya (south), and Champa (east) ranges. Its earliest capital was Girivraja (mountain fortress city) or old Rajagriha. Mahavagga called it “Giribhaja of Magadhas” to distinguish it from Girivraja of Kekaya. The Mahabharata refers to it as Girivraja, Rajagriha, Barhadratha-pura, and Magadhapura and states that it was an almost impregnable city protected by five hills. She is also known as Vasumati in the Ramayana. Hiuen Tsang calls it Kushagra-pura, while Buddhaghosa gives us the seventh name, Bimbisara-puri. Archaeologically, the outer walls of Rajagriha represent the earliest evidence of fortification in post-Harappan India.
• (ii) The early history of Magadha is shrouded in mystery. The territory of the Rigvedic Kikata ruled by a chief named Pramganda was declared by Yaska to be a non-Aryan country, while the Puranas identified Kikata with Magadha. On the basis of Brihad-dharma, Purana Kikata has been identified with the area around Gaya. Magadha first appears in the Atharvaveda and the ‘bards of Magadha’ are mentioned in the Yajurveda. However, no king of Magadha except Propaganda is mentioned in Vedic literature. According to the Mahabharata and Purana, the earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha, son of Vasu Chaidya-Uparichara and father of Jarasandha. The Ramayana makes Vasu himself the founder of Girivraja or Vasumati. The Brihadratha dynasty ended in the sixth century BCE.
• (iii) Jain writers mention two early kings of Rajagriha named Samudra-Vijaya and Gaya. But their dynasty remains unconfirmed. The second dynasty was the Sisunaga dynasty, founded by Sisunaga. Although some texts place Bimbisara in this family, he is generally accepted as belonging to the Haryanka dynasty. After that, Magadha was successively ruled by the Nanda dynasty, the Mauryan Empire, and the Shunga dynasty.

Vajji or Vrijji

• (i) The territory of Vajji or Vrijji lay to the north of the Ganges and extended to the hills of Nepal in the north. It was separated from Kosala and Malla by the river Gandak. On the eastern side, it extended as far as Koshi and Mahananda. The Vajjian confederacy consisted of eight clans, the most important of which were the Videhas, Lichchhavis, Jnatrikas, and Vrijjis (literally pastoral nomads). The identity of the rest of the clans is unknown. Interestingly, the literal meaning of Vajja, i.e. pastoral nomads, shows that they were late settlers. In contemporary literature, sarthavaha are also called Vaidehikas, i.e. men of the Videha tribe. This shows that the trade profession originates from a particular tribal guild. On the evidence of Sutrakritanga and Anguttara Nikaya, it has been suggested that the Ugras, Bhogas, Aikshvakas, and Kauravas were the other four clans in the confederation.
• (ii) The Videhas had their capital at Mithila, identified with Janakapura, and the Lichchhavis had their capital at Vaishali (Basarh in Muzaffarpur). This was also the administrative center of the confederation. Vaishali is identified with the city called Vishala in the Ramayana. Vaishali was surrounded by three walls, each standing a league away from the other with three gates and watch towers. The Jnatrikas to which Mahavira belonged had their seat of power at Kundapura or Kundagrama and Kollaga, a suburb of Vaishali. Although Mahavira and his clansmen lived in suburban areas, they were known as Vesalia, i.e., the people of Vaishali. The Vrijjis were also associated with the Vaishali. According to Buddhist tradition, the city consisted of three districts, which were probably the seat of three different clans at one time.
• (iii) The Lichchhavis, represented as Kshatriyas, were a major political power in the sixth century B.C. They formed a confederacy with nine Mallas and eighteen gana-rajas of Kashi-Kosala against Magadha. According to tradition, the Vaishalians attacked Magadha during the reign of Bimbisara. A treaty was soon followed which resulted in a matrimonial alliance between the Lichchhavi and Bimbisara clans. However, Ajatashatru later destroyed this confederation.
• (iv) The Lichchhavis do not seem to have had a standing army or a system of collecting agricultural revenue. However, they had a governing body consisting of 7,707 rajas with as many rajas, senapatis, and bhandagarikas i.e. treasurers. They all formed part of the general assembly of the sabha that met at Santhagara. Executive functions were held by a smaller body of eight people known as the Ashtabula, perhaps one member from each clan (kula).

Mallas

• (i) The Mallas were another Kshatriya clan referred to in ancient texts as gana-rajya. There were many branches of this clan, two of which had their seats in Kusinara and Pava. The localities of the two main groups known as the Malla-rattha of Maharashtra in the Mahabharata were separated by the river Kakuttha, the Cacouthes of the classical writers. Kusinagara or Kusinara has been identified with Kasia in Gorakhpur. The text states that the Sala Grove of Mallas, a Pattana (suburb) of Kusinara, lay near the river Hiranya Vati. A large stupa behind the Nirvana temple near Kasia with an inscribed copper plate with the words “parinirvana-chaitya tamrapatta it” establishes the identification. Pava has been identified with a village called Padaraona near Kasia.
• (ii) It is believed that like Videha, the Mallas were a monarchy, and during the monarchy, their metropolis was a big city and was known as Kushavati. Other important cities were Anupiya and Uruvelakappa. The relationship between the Mallas and the Lichchhavis was sometimes hostile and sometimes friendly. The Mallas are believed to have been ruled by five hundred rulers or elders. The Mallas eventually fell prey to the imperial arms of Magadha. The Buddha died near Kusinara and his last rites were performed by the Mallas. The Mallas of Pava are said to have built the sangharam, which was inaugurated by the Buddha himself. Buddhism owes some of its greatest figures to the Mallas, such as Anand, Upali, Anuruddha, Devadatta, and Khanda-Sumana.

Chedi

• (i) Chedi territory roughly corresponded to the eastern part of modern Bundelkhand. Pargiter places the Chedis along the southern bank of the Yamuna from Chambal in the northwest to Karvi in ​​the southeast. Its boundaries to the south may be the Malwa Plateau and the Bundelkhand Hills. His capital was known as Sotthivati-Nagar or Shuktimati or Shakti-Shivaya. Other important cities were Sahajati and Tripuri.
• (ii) Chetiya Jataka traces the descent of the Chedi kings from Mahasammata and Mandhata. Upachara, the king of the line, had five sons who are said to have founded the cities of Hathipura (Hastinapura), Assapura (in Anga), Sinhapura (Lala, from where Vijaya left for Ceylon), Uttarapanchala (Ahichchhatra) and Daddarapura (in the Himalayan region). Shishupala, the legendary enemy of Krishna, was the king of Chedi. However, apart from these epic legends, nothing authentic is known about the Chedis.

Vatsa

The state of Vatsa, situated along the banks of the Yamuna, had its capital at Kaushambi or Kosam near Allahabad. It is said in the Puranas that when Hastinapura was washed away by the Ganges, Nicchakshu, the great-great-grandson of Janamejaya, abandoned it and moved his capital to Kausambi. The most famous kings of the Vatsa kingdom were Udayana who was a contemporary of the Buddha, Pradyota of Avanti and Bimbisara, and Ajatashatru of Magadha. Before Udayana we have some allusions to other Chedi kings like Shatanika II or Parantapa who was married to a princess of Videha and is also said to have attacked Champa, the capital of Anga, during the reign of Dadhivahana. Udayana or Vaidehiputra was his son. Udayana, originally an oppressor of Buddhism, became an ardent follower on the advice of Pindola. t Udayana had a son named Bodhi, but practically nothing is known of the kingdom after Udayana. Playwright Bhasa made Udayana the subject of his plays. These plays are based on the story of the romance between Udayana and Vasavadatta, a princess of Avanti.

Kuru

A powerful tribe during the Vedic civilization lost its primacy during the Buddha period. According to the Pali texts, the ruling dynasty belonged to the Yudhishthira gotra, i.e. the Yudhishthira family. It was centered around the Delhi-Meerut region and had its capital at Indapatta or Indapattana i.e. Indraprastha. It contained many other cities and plays such as Hatthinipura, Thullakothita, Kammassadamma, Kundi, and Varanavata. The Jatakas mention Kurus kings styled Dhananjaya Koravya, Koravya, and Sutasoma, whose historicity is doubtful. The Arthashastra refers to them as rajashabdopajivin, i.e. having the titles of kings. This suggests that they did not have one king but many kings with many centers of authority and they had a samgha, perhaps a republican confederation. The famous Pandavas and Kauravas who fought in the great Bharata war belonged to the Kuru clan.

Panchala

• (i) Panchala Mahajanapada includes Bareilly, Badaun, Farrukhabad, Pilibhit, Bulandshahr, Aligarh etc. It appears to have been bounded on the east by the Gomati and the Chambal on the south. In Jatakas, we have Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. Samhita Upanishad Brahmana mentions Prachya Panchalas i.e. Eastern Panchalas. One of the first capitals of Panchala was Kampilya, identified with Kampila. Another city of Panchala was Parivakra or Parichakra. The Northern Panchalas had Ahichhatra or Chhatrapati as their capital.
• (ii) Panchalas consisted of five clans – Krivis, Turvashas, ​​Keshins, Srinyayas, and Somakas – all belonging to the Vedic tribes. The two territories of Panchala were divided by the river Bhagirathi. The Kurus and the Panchalas fought for possession of the Uttara Panchala region.
• (iii) The history of Panchal from the death of Pravahana Jaivala or Jaivala to the time of Bimbisara is obscure. We have evidence of several kings like Durmukha and Chulani Brahmadatta. Sanjaya etc. The Ramayana connects the early Panchal rulers with the founding of the famous city of Kanyakubja (the city of the humpbacked girl) or Kanauj. The Panchalas had a rajashabdopajivin type of samgha form of government in place in the 6th century BC. In the 5th century BC, the Panchalas became a dark power.

Matsya

• (i) Matsya territory included Alwar-Jaipur-Bharatpur localities. His capital was Vitatanagara, in whose court the five Pandava brothers resided. The Matsya region was bounded by the Kurus in the south, the Shurasenas in the west, the Chambal in the south, and the Sarasvati in the west. The Mahabharata mentions Apara-Matsyas and Vira-Matsyas. The capital of Matsya has been identified with Bairat in Jaipur. Upalavya was another city of the Matsyas which lay close to Vijayanagar.
• (ii) Matsya first appeared in the Rigveda. The Satapatha Brahmana mentions a Matsya king named Dhvasana Dvaivatavana. In the Manu-Samhita, the Matsyas together with the Kuru-kshetra, Panchalas, and Shurasenakas form the “holy enclave of Brahmanical sages” (Brahmarshi-desha).
• (iii) However, the history of Matsya in the period immediately preceding the reign of Bimbisara is unknown. It was probably at one time attached to the neighboring kingdom of Chedi. This kingdom was eventually incorporated into the Magadha Empire. Some of the most famous edicts of Ashoka have been found at Bairat.

Shurasena

• (i) Shurasena had its capital at Mathura. Greek writers refer to the Sourasenoi and their cities Methora and Cleisobora. The highway connected the city of Mathura with a place called Veranda, which was connected to Shravasti, and a caravan route that led from Taxila to Varanasi via Soreyya, Sankassa (Sankasya), Kannakujja (Kanauj) and Payega-Palitana (Allahabad).
• (ii) In Mahabharata and Puranas the ruling family of Mathura is mentioned as Yadus. The Yadu or Yadava tribe was divided into Vitihotras and Satavatas. The Satvatas were divided into Andhaka, Vrishni, Mahabhojas, Daivavriddha etc. The epic hero Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Satvatas. A branch of the Satvatas migrated south and ruled as the Bhoja kings. Several southern states like Mahishmati, Vidarbha, etc. are said to have been founded by princes of the Yadu clan. In the Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described as a samgha. The Mahabharata also mentions Vrishnis, Andhakas, and other associated tribes as samgha and Vasudeva, a Vrishni prince, as Samghamukhya (chief of the confederation). A unique coin belonging to Vrishni Gana was also found.
• (iii) Buddhist texts refer to Avantiputra, king of the Shurasenas, during the time of Mahakachchan, one of the principal disciples of the Buddha, responsible for Buddhist expansion in the Mathura region. The Shurasenas continued to be important until the time of Megasthenes as an integral part of the Mauryan Empire.

Assaka (Ashmaka)

Assaka was situated on the banks of the Godavari with its capital at Potali, Potana, or Podana identified with Bodhan. Assaka also included Mulaka (the area around Paithan known in ancient times as Pratishthana). The territory of Assaka approached the southern border of Avanti. Ashmaka and Mulaka belonged to the Ikshvaku family and the royal sage Ashmaka is said to have founded the city of Podana. Some vague references to the Assaka mahajanapada ruler include Brahmadatta. The Assaka Jataka mentions that the city of Potli was included in the kingdom of Kashi. An Assaka king named Aruna with the help of his minister Nandisena scored a victory over the king of Kalinga

Avanti

• (i) Avanti was one of the most powerful mahajanapadas in the sixth century BCE. It roughly corresponds to the Ujjain area along with the part of the Narmada valley from Mandhata to Maheshvara. The Janapada was divided into two parts by the Vindhyas, the northern part drained by the Shipra having its capital at Ujjain, and the southern part having its center at Mahisatti or Mahishmati. Some other cities in the region were Kuraraghara, Makkarakata and Sudarshanapura. The Puranas attribute the founding of Avanti to one of the Yadu clans known as Haihaya. The Haihayas are said to have overthrown the Nagas who were the original inhabitants of the Narmada region. The Haihayas were divided into five branches: Vitihotras, Bhojas, Avantis, Kundikeras or Tundikeras, and Talajanghas.
• (ii) It is situated in a very fertile agricultural tract. controlling some rich iron regions as well as controlling trade coming from the south, the region developed into a powerful monarchy. In the sixth century BC, Avanti was ruled by a powerful king named Pradyota. However, in the fourth century BCE, Avanti became part of the Magadha Empire. Ajatashatru is believed to have fortified his capital Rajagriha out of fear of Pradyota. Pradyota was described as Chanda (cruel) in the Puranas. He was followed by four kings, the last being Nandivardhana, who was defeated by Shisunaga of Magadha.

Gandhara

• (i) Gandhara, which consisted of the modern districts of Peshawar and Rawalpindi, had as its capital Takshashilu, which was a center of commerce as well as learning. Another famous city of this kingdom was Pushkaravati founded by Pushkara. Takshashila was founded by another prince named Taksha. The remains of this city were found near Sarai-Khola. It was built three times, the first representing Bhir-mound, which was the oldest settlement. Later settlements are known as Sirsukha and Sirkap. Pushkalavati, the lotus city, is represented by the modern Prang and Charshada.
• (ii) The Gandhara region was known for its woolen industry from the very beginning. It also became a land of learned men. We hear that personalities like Uddalaka, Svetaketu, and Kautilya were educated there. Panini, a native of Gandhara, refers to Takshashila in one of the sutras.
• (iii) In the middle of the sixth century BC, one Pukkusati (Pushkarasarin) occupied the throne of Gandhara, who is said to have sent an embassy and a letter to King Bimbisara and waged war with Pradyota of Avanti, who was defeated. In the later half of the sixth century BC Gandhara was conquered by the king of Persia. In the Behistun Inscription of Darius, c. 520-518 BC, the Gandhara (Gadara) appear among the subject peoples of the Achaemenid Empire.

Kamboja

Kamboja is located near Gandhara and is usually mentioned together with Gandhara. The Mahabharata connects the Kambojas with a place called Rajapura, mentioned by Hieun Tsang, lying south or south-east of Punch. The western borders of Kamboja reached Kafiristan. Elphinston found tribes like ‘Caumojee’, ‘Camoze’, and ‘Camoje’ in this area, whose names remind us of Kamboje. Apart from Rajapur, we have evidence of another city called Nandinagar situated in Kamboja territory. In the Mahabharata, the Kambojas are represented as living in a monarchical system and Chandravarman and Sudakshina are mentioned as kings. In later times, monarchy gave place to the samgha form of government. The Arthashastra calls them vartashastropajivin samgha, i.e. a confederation of farmers, herdsmen, traders, and warriors. The Kambojas (Kamjoba gana) corporations are also mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Conclusion

So we see that at the time of the Buddha, we have two kinds of state systems: monarchical and republican. We have the four most powerful monarchies in the form of Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha, while the rest were of the Gandhara type. Some of them united to become confederations and others remained autonomous. Switching from one system to another was not uncommon. The only republican tribes were Shakyas, Kalingas, Mallas, Bhaggas, Moriyas, Bulis, Kalams, etc. The Vrijjis and Yadus were a confederation of tribes. The independent republican tribes emerging from the Vedic tribes maintained the tribal tradition on a larger scale than the monarchy, where tribal loyalties waned and gave way to caste and territorial identities. Popular Vedic assemblies were preserved in the gana-rajyas as they gave way to the rise of bureaucracy and also to the growth of Brahmin power. Some of the tribal republics turned into monarchies, while Kamboja changed from a monarchy to a republic.

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