The Directory (1795–1799)

The Directory, which ruled France from 1795 to 1799, occupied a key chapter in the period following the French Revolution. This account summarizes a period marked by political instability, economic problems, and military conflict The Directory was established after the fall of the National Assembly and aimed to bring stability to post-revolutionary France.

However, it faced internal dissent, financial crises, and external threats. This guide provides an overview of the regime’s efforts, its struggle to maintain order, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, which marked the end of the Revolutionary Era. The complex legacy of the Directory reflects the challenges of transitioning from revolutionary fervor to establishing a stable and lasting government in the face of profound social and political change.

The Directory (1795–1799)

Historical facts	The Directory (1795–1799)
Formation Year	1795
Form of Government	Authoritarian
Leadership	Emphasis on stabilizing finances and the economy
Political Climate	Reactionary and conservative
Economic Policies	Emphasis on stabilizing finances and economy
Military Influence	Strong military presence and influence
Challenges Faced	Internal conflicts, economic struggles, and corruption
End Year	1799

Introduction

The 1795 Constitution created by the National Convention vested the executive power of France in a Committee of Directors known as the Directory. The Directory, consisting of five members elected by both houses of the legislature, was in power for four years, from October 1795 to November 1799. Each of the directors held the presidency in turn for 3 months, and one director was replaced. Each year. Among those who served in the directory were Vicomte de Barras, Lazare Carnot, Joseph Fouché, and Comte Emmanuel Sieyès (Abbe Sieyes). The directors were men of moderate talent and did not hesitate to indulge in corruption. They were unable to solve the problems France was facing at the time. Barras was elected to the Third Estate and, in time, became a staunch Jacobin. He plucked up courage and attacked Robespierre. He saved the National Assembly by employing Napoleon Bonaparte in 1795. Later, Barras became one of the five directors. He was a shrewd politician, completely unscrupulous and immoral, who ‘loved the throne for its velvet’ and was always in debt. He was a leader of Parisian society. The Directory’s four years in power were plagued by conspiracies and intrigues. Royalists and reactionaries found their way into the legislature through elections. They did not hesitate to use fair or foul means to sabotage the government. They were only kept at bay by the use of force by the government.

Babeuf Plot

Reference may be made to the so-called Babeuf Plot of 1796. A political club known as the Pantheon Society was founded in October 1795. Its members included a large number of ex-Jacobins. The society published a newspaper known as the Tribune, which was edited by the young agitator Babeuf. Due to its disruptive nature, the Directory took action against the Pantheon Society. However, the members of the society formed a secret group of six members and began to prepare for an uprising against the government. They aimed to restore the revolutionary movement. They proposed declaring a “Republic of Equals,” in which the gap between the rich and the poor would be narrowed. The program of the society’s members was to infiltrate the army, police, and administration units through revolutionary agents. Thorough preparations were made for the proposed uprising. Weapons and ammunition were collected for this purpose. However, the proposed uprising failed. The police had their agents in the movement from the beginning. On the eve of the uprising, Babeuf and his associates, numbering around forty, were arrested, and their supporters were forcibly dispersed. The conspirators, along with Babeuf, were brought to trial and executed. The directory thus survived the worst threat of its existence.

Financial Crisis

France’s financial situation worsened during the Directory period. The financial crisis was compounded by wasteful public spending and corruption. A huge amount of money had to be spent to maintain an army of a million men. The population of Paris had to be fed at the expense of the nation. The appropriations issued by the National Assembly could not solve the financial problem. As inflation increased, Assignat lost its value. Under these circumstances, in 1797, the government was forced to declare partial bankruptcy. Interest payments on the national debt have been suspended. Eventually, the assignees had to be dismissed entirely. Failure to resolve the financial crisis brought the directory into disrepute. The directory and the two legislative chambers lacked harmony. Despite the strong measures taken during the French Revolution, the Roman Catholic Church was still strong and popular with the people of France.

Foreign Policy

When the Directory took office, France was still at war with Austria, Sardinia, England, and the smaller German states. Prussia, Spain, and Holland had already withdrawn from the coalition and made peace with France. The first task of the Directory was therefore to continue the war against Austria, Sardinia, and England. The general plan of France’s military campaign against her enemies was to send one French army across the Rhine River through Germany and thence into Austria. Another army was to cross the Alps through northern Italy to Vienna, the capital of Austria. Napoleon Bonaparte was appointed commander-in-chief of the French army for the Italian campaign. While the French army sent across the Rhine did not achieve the desired success, the Italian campaign under Napoleon was quite successful. He successively defeated four Austrian generals, each outnumbered, and forced Austria and its allies to make peace. The Treaty of Campo Formio stipulated that France would retain most of its conquests. With this treaty, France acquired the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), Lombardy, and the Ionian Islands from Austria. In northern Italy, Napoleon established the Cisalpine (Italian) Republic (later known as the Kingdom of Italy) and strengthened his position in France by sending the government millions of francs worth of treasure. French forces under Napoleon’s command occupied every fortress in northern Italy. The Sardinian armies were defeated and forced to surrender Nice and Savoy to France.

One of the immediate effects of Napoleon’s victory in Italy was the dissolution of the first coalition against France and the territorial gains from Sardinia and Austria. After their defeat, both Sardinia and Austria left the coalition, and England was the only power left in the field against France. Another important effect of France’s military victory was the sudden rise of Napoleon’s popularity and fame among the French people. While the people applauded Napoleon’s military success, the Directory feared and outwardly flattered him. In 1797, Napoleon was appointed commander of the army to invade England. However, Napoleon was convinced that, without a powerful navy, it would be impossible to cross the English Channel. Under these circumstances, in 1798, to strike at British trade with the East, Napoleon led an expedition into Ottoman-ruled Egypt, which he conquered. However, his fleet was destroyed by British Admiral Horatio Nelson, leaving him stranded. He fearlessly reformed Egyptian government and law, abolished serfdom and feudalism, and guaranteed basic rights. The French scholars he brought with him began the scientific study of ancient Egyptian history. In 1799, he failed to conquer Syria but was victorious over the Ottomans at Abu Qir (Abukir). Meanwhile, France faced a new coalition: Austria, Russia, and minor powers allied with Britain.

The Overthrow of the Directory

With the increasing unpopularity of the Directory, its days seemed numbered. Leaving the army behind, Napoleon returned to France and entered into a conspiracy with the Abbé Sieyes to overthrow the Directory. However, both were poles apart in their temperament and ideas. Napoleon was a man of action and believed in the autocracy of the sword. On the other hand, Abbe Sieyes was a philosopher who believed in a policy of checks and balances. However, both were unanimous on the issue of overthrowing the Directory.

Conclusion

In a coup. dated November 9–10, 1799, Napoleon and his colleagues overthrew the Directory, seized power, and established a new regime—the Consulate. The consulate had three members: Napoleon, Abbe Sieyes, and Ducos. The constitution, which was drawn up a month later, placed supreme executive power in the hands of Napoleon as First Consul.

(FAQ) Questions and Answers about The Directory (1795–1799)